Differential encoding of place value between the dorsal and intermediate hippocampusHighlights d Place cells in the intermediate hippocampus remap instantly upon value change d Place cells in the intermediate hippocampus overrepresent high-value locations d Value-based remapping is rarely observed in place cells in the dorsal hippocampus

The concept of U’s triangle, which revealed the importance of polyploidization in plant genome evolution, described natural allopolyploidization events in Brassica using three diploids [B. rapa (A genome), B. nigra (B), and B. oleracea (C)] and derived allotetraploids [B. juncea (AB genome), B. napus (AC), and B. carinata (BC)]. However, comprehensive understanding of Brassica genome evolution has not been fully achieved. Here, we performed low-coverage (2–6×) whole-genome sequencing of 28 accessions of Brassica as well as of Raphanus sativus [R genome] to explore the evolution of six Brassica species based on chloroplast genome and ribosomal DNA variations. Our phylogenomic analyses led to two main conclusions. (1) Intra-species-level chloroplast genome variations are low in the three allotetraploids (2~7 SNPs), but rich and variable in each diploid species (7~193 SNPs). (2) Three allotetraploids maintain two 45SnrDNA types derived from both ancestral species with maternal dominance. Furthermore, this study sheds light on the maternal origin of the AC chloroplast genome. Overall, this study clarifies the genetic relationships of U’s triangle species based on a comprehensive genomics approach and provides important genomic resources for correlative and evolutionary studies.

The hippocampus and parahippocampal region are essential for representing episodic memories involving various spatial locations and objects, and for using those memories for future adaptive behavior. The "dual-stream model" was initially formulated based on anatomical characteristics of the medial temporal lobe, dividing the parahippocampal region into two streams that separately process and relay spatial and nonspatial information to the hippocampus. Despite its significance, the dual-stream model in its original form cannot explain recent experimental results, and many researchers have recognized the need for a modification of the model. Here, we argue that dividing the parahippocampal region into spatial and nonspatial streams a priori may be too simplistic, particularly in light of ambiguous situations in which a sensory cue alone (e.g., visual scene) may not allow such a definitive categorization.Upon reviewing evidence, including our own, that reveals the importance of goaldirected behavioral responses in determining the relative involvement of the parahippocampal processing streams, we propose the Goal-directed Interaction of Stimulus and Task-demand (GIST) model. In the GIST model, input stimuli such as visual scenes and objects are first processed by both the postrhinal and perirhinal corticesthe postrhinal cortex more heavily involved with visual scenes and perirhinal cortex with objects-with relatively little dependence on behavioral task demand. However, once perceptual ambiguities are resolved and the scenes and objects are identified and recognized, the information is then processed through the medial or lateral entorhinal cortex, depending on whether it is used to fulfill navigational or nonnavigational goals, respectively. As complex sensory stimuli are utilized for both navigational and non-navigational purposes in an intermixed fashion in naturalistic settings, the hippocampus may be required to then put together these experiences into a coherent map to allow flexible cognitive operations for adaptive behavior to occur.

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Reactivation of place cells during sharp-wave ripples (SWRs) in the hippocampus transfers newly acquired information to the neocortex and thus is important for memory consolidation. However, whether hippocampal reactivation is affected by the values of events experienced by the animal is largely unknown. Here, we investigated whether place cells in the dorsal (dHP) and intermediate (iHP) hippocampus are differentially reactivated depending on the value associated with a place. Rats were trained to learn the places associated with higher-value rewards in a T-maze, with concurrent simultaneous recording of single units in the dHP and iHP. Place cells in the iHP representing the high-value location were reactivated significantly more frequently during SWRs in both task and subsequent sleep periods than those representing the low-value location. The amount of reactivation during sleep was positively correlated with learning speed the next day. In contrast, these characteristics were not observed in the dHP. Instead, place-cell activities coding the routes leading to high-value locations were replayed more in the dHP than in the iHP. Our findings suggest that value-based differential reactivation patterns along the septotemporal axis of the hippocampus may play essential roles in goal-directed spatial-learning optimization for maximal reward.

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