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Cognitive operations are supported by dynamically reconfiguring neural systems that integrate processing components widely distributed throughout the brain. The inter-neuronal connections that constitute these systems are powerfully shaped by environmental input. We evaluated the ability of computer-presented brain training games done in school to harness this neuroplastic potential and improve learning in an overall study sample of 583 second-grade children. Doing a 5-minute brain-training game immediately before math or reading curricular content games increased performance on the curricular content games. Doing three 20-minute brain training sessions per week for four months increased gains on school-administered math and reading achievement tests compared to control classes tested at the same times without intervening brain training. These results provide evidence of cognitive priming with immediate effects on learning, and longer-term brain training with far-transfer or generalized effects on academic achievement.

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Data from a large public school district (referred to as Site 1 from this point on) for Grades 2 through 8 for the 1999 student population were analyzed for all students including English language learners (ELLs). The data included student responses to the reading and mathematics subtests of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills 2 (ITBS) and student background data such as race, gender, birth date, and number of years of participation in a bilingual education program (number of years of bilingual service). Descriptive statistics and the percent of over-achievement of non-ELL students over ELL students were computed and compared across the different subtest content areas. In multiple regression analyses, student English learning status was related to student test scores and background variables. A state department of education (referred to as Site 2 from this point on) provided us with student background data and item-level data on the Stanford Achievement Test Series, Ninth Edition (Stanford 9) 3 for all students in Grades 2 through 11 who were enrolled in the public schools statewide for the 1997-1998 academic year. Descriptive statistics compared ELL and non-ELL student performance by subgroup and across the different content areas. In a canonical correlation model the relationship between student language proficiency level, parent education, and family socioeconomic status (SES) (the Set 2 variables) and Stanford 9 performance (the Set 1 variables) was examined.

The purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of reading test items that may differentially impede the performance of students with disabilities. By examining the relationship between select item features and performance, the study seeks to inform strategies for increasing the accessibility of reading assessments for individuals from this group. Including students with disabilities in large-scale, statewide assessment and accountability systems, as mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) and the "No Child Left Behind" (NCLB) Act of 2001 (NCLB, 2002), can help identify issues and guide instruction to improve education for these students. Research on reading complexities for students has primarily focused on the role of vocabulary and sentence length, and has also touched upon issues of legibility such as format, typeface, and visuals. Although research reveals that readability measures are widely used and beneficial for matching students' reading levels with appropriate text, they do not identify the precise grammatical and cognitive components within sentences, paragraphs, or passages that may contribute to complexity for students with disabilities. While current research does address the critical need to accurately assess the reading performance of students with disabilities, a void in operationalizing reading complexity exists.

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