Local mediators orchestrate the host response to both sterile and infectious challenge and resolution. Recent evidence demonstrates that maresin sulfido‐conjugates actively resolve acute inflammation and promote tissue regeneration. In this report, we investigated self‐limited infectious exudates for novel bioactive chemical signals in tissue regeneration and resolution. By use of spleens from Escherichia coli infected mice, self‐resolving infectious exudates, human spleens, and blood from patients with sepsis, we identified 2 new families of potent molecules. Characterization of their physical properties and isotope tracking demonstrated that the bioactive structures contained a docosahexaenoate backbone and sulfido‐conjugated triene or tetraene double‐bond systems. Activated human phagocytes converted 17‐hydro(peroxy)‐4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,15E,19Z‐docosahexaenoic acid to these bioactive molecules. Regeneration of injured planaria was accelerated with nanomolar amounts of 16‐glutathionyl, 17‐hydroxy‐4Z,7Z,10,12,14,19Z‐docosahexaenoic acid and 16‐cysteinylglycinyl, 17‐hydroxy‐4Z,7Z,10,12,14,19Z‐docosahexaenoic acid (Protectin sulfido‐conjugates) or 8‐glutathionyl, 7,17‐dihydroxy‐4Z,9, 11,13Z,15E,19Z‐docosahexaenoic acid and 8‐cysteinylglycinyl, 7,17‐dihydroxy‐4Z,9,11,13Z, 15E,19Z‐docosahexaenoic acid (Resolvin sulfido‐conjugates). Each protectin and resolvin sulfido‐conjugate dose dependently (0.1‐10 nM) stimulated human macrophage bacterial phagocytosis, phagolysosomal acidification, and efferocytosis. Together, these results identify 2 novel pathways and provide evidence for structural elucidation of new resolution moduli. These resolvin and protectin conjugates identified in mice and human infected tissues control host responses promoting catabasis.—Dalli, J., Ramon, S., Norris, P. C., Colas, R. A., Serhan, C. N. Novel proresolving and tissue‐regenerative resolvin and protectin sulfido‐conjugated pathways. FASEB J. 29, 2120‐2136 (2015). http://www.fasebj.org

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that fails to resolve. Recently, a key role for type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) was linked to asthma pathogenesis; however, mechanisms for ILC2 regulation remain to be determined. Here, metabololipidomics of murine lungs identified temporal changes in endogenous maresin 1 (MaR1) during self-limited allergic inflammation. Exogenous MaR1 reduced lung inflammation, ILC2 expression of interleukin-5 and 13, and increased amphiregulin. MaR1 augmented de novo generation of regulatory T cells (Tregs), which interacted with ILC2 to markedly suppress cytokine production in a TGF-β-dependent manner. Antibody-mediated depletion of Tregs interrupted MaR1 control of ILC2 expression of IL-13 in vivo. Together, the findings uncover Tregs as potent regulators of ILC2 activation; MaR1 targets Tregs and ILC2 to restrain allergic lung inflammation, suggesting MaR1 as the basis for a new pro-resolving therapeutic approach to asthma and other chronic inflammatory diseases.

The resolution of inflammation is an active and dynamic process critical in maintaining homeostasis. Newly identified lipid mediators have been recognized as key players during the resolution phase. These specialized proresolving mediators (SPM) constitute separate families that include lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, and maresins, each derived from essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. New results demonstrate that SPM regulate aspects of the immune response, including reduction of neutrophil infiltration, decreased T cell cytokine production, and stimulation of macrophage phagocytic activity. The actions of SPM on B lymphocytes remain unknown. Our study shows that the novel SPM 17-hydroxydosahexaenoic acid (17-HDHA), resolvin D1, and protectin D1 are present in the spleen. Interestingly, 17-HDHA and resolvin D1, but not protectin D1, strongly increase activated human B cell IgM and IgG production. Furthermore, increased Ab production by 17-HDHA is due to augmented B cell differentiation toward a CD27+CD38+ Ab-secreting cell phenotype. The 17-HDHA did not affect proliferation and was nontoxic to cells. Increase of plasma cell differentiation and Ab production supports the involvement of SPM during the late stages of inflammation and pathogen clearance. The present study provides new evidence for SPM activity in the humoral response. These new findings highlight the potential applications of SPM as endogenous and nontoxic adjuvants, and as anti-inflammatory therapeutic molecules.

Inflammation and its natural resolution are host-protective responses triggered by infection or injury. The resolution phase of inflammation is regulated by enzymatically produced specialized pro-resolving mediators. We recently identified a new class of peptide-conjugated specialized pro-resolving mediators that carry potent tissue regenerative actions that belong to the protectin family and are coined protectin conjugates in tissue regeneration (PCTR). Herein, with the use of microbial-induced peritonitis in mice and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometryebased lipid mediator metabololipidomics, we found that PCTR1 is temporally regulated during self-resolving infection. When administered at peak of inflammation, PCTR1 enhanced macrophage recruitment and phagocytosis of Escherichia coli, decreased polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration, and counter-regulated inflammation-initiating lipid mediators, including prostaglandins. In addition, biologically produced PCTR1 promoted human monocyte and macrophage migration in a dose-dependent manner (0.001 to 10.0 nmol/L). We prepared PCTR1 via organic synthesis and confirmed that synthetic PCTR1 increased macrophage and monocyte migration, enhanced macrophage efferocytosis, and accelerated tissue regeneration in planaria. With human macrophage subsets, PCTR1 levels were significantly higher in M2 macrophages than in M1 phenotype, along with members of the resolvin conjugates in tissue regeneration and maresin conjugate families. In contrast, M1 macrophages gave higher levels of cysteinyl leukotrienes. Together, these results demonstrate that PCTR1 is a potent monocyte/macrophage agonist, regulating key anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving processes during bacterial infection. (Am J Pathol 2016, 186: 962e973; http://dx

Influenza viruses remain a critical global health concern. More efficacious vaccines are needed to protect against influenza virus, yet few adjuvants are approved for routine use. Specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) are powerful endogenous bioactive regulators of inflammation, with great clinical translational properties. Here, we investigated the ability of the SPM 17-HDHA to enhance the adaptive immune response using an OVA immunization model and a pre-clinical influenza vaccination mouse model. Our findings revealed that mice immunized with OVA plus 17-HDHA or with H1N1-derived HA protein plus 17-HDHA increased antigen-specific antibody titers. 17-HDHA increased the number of antibody-secreting cells in vitro as well as the number of HA-specific antibody secreting cells present in the bone marrow. Importantly, the 17-HDHA-mediated increased antibody production was more protective against live pH1N1 influenza infection in mice. This is the first report on the biological effects of omega-3-derived SPMs on the humoral immune response. These findings illustrate a previously unknown biological link between proresolution signals and the adaptive immune system. Furthermore, this work has important implications for the understanding of B cell biology, as well as the development of new potential vaccine adjuvants.

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Summary Specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) are endogenous bioactive lipid molecules that play a fundamental role in the regulation of inflammation and its resolution. SPMs are classified into lipoxins, resolvins, protectins and maresins. Lipoxins and other SPMs have been identified in important immunological tissues including bone marrow, spleen and blood. Lipoxins regulate functions of the innate immune system including the promotion of monocyte recruitment and increase macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils. A major knowledge gap is whether lipoxins influence adaptive immune cells. Here, we analyzed the actions of lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and its receptor ALX/FPR2 on human B cells. LXA4 decreased IgM and IgG production on activated B cells through ALX/FPR2-dependent signaling, which downregulated NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation. LXA4 also inhibited human memory B cell antibody production and proliferation, but not naïve B cell function. Lastly, LXA4 decreased antigen-specific antibody production in vivo. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the actions of lipoxins on human B cells, which shows a link between resolution signals and adaptive immunity. Regulating antibody production is crucial to prevent unwanted inflammation. Harnessing the ability of lipoxins to decrease memory B cell antibody production can be beneficial to threat inflammatory and autoimmune disorders.

Specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs) constitute a recently recognized class of bioactive molecules which promote the resolution of inflammation. We recently reported that the SPMs resolvin D1 (RvD1) and 17-hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid (17-HDHA) promote the differentiation of IgG-secreting B cells and enhance antibody-mediated immune responses. However, there is an important knowledge gap regarding whether or not SPMs regulate human B-cell IgE production, which is the key effector in diseases such as asthma and allergy. Therefore we investigated whether a panel of diverse SPMs influences B-cell IgE production. An important finding was that 17-HDHA and RvD1 inhibit IgE production by human B cells and suppress the differentiation of naïve B cells into IgE-secreting cells by specifically blocking epsilon germline transcription (εGLT). This effect is specific to human IgE, as the SPMs do not inhibit production of IgM and IgG and did not suppress other IL-4-upregulated genes. 17-HDHA and RvD1 act by stabilizing the transcriptional repressor Bcl-6, which competes with STAT6 for binding at the εGLT promoter. Overall, these new findings demonstrate that certain SPMs inhibit the differentiation of IgE-producing B cells, without being broadly immune-suppressive, representing a novel class of potential therapeutics for IgE-driven diseases such as asthma and allergy.