The optimal coordination of overcurrent relays (OCRs) has recently become a major challenge owing to the ever-increasing participation of distributed generation (DG) and the multi-looped structure of modern distribution networks (DNs). Furthermore, the changeable operational topologies of microgrids has increased the complexity and computational burden to obtain the optimal settings of OCRs. In this context, classical approaches to OCR coordination might no longer be sufficient to provide a reliable performance of microgrids both in the islanded and grid-connected operational modes. This paper proposes a novel approach for optimal coordination of directional OCRs in microgrids. This approach consists of considering the upper limit of the plug setting multiplier (PSM) as a variable instead of a fixed parameter as usually done in traditional approaches for OCRs coordination. A genetic algorithm (GA) was implemented to optimize the limits of the maximum PSM for the OCRs coordination. Several tests were performed with an IEC microgrid benchmark network considering several operational modes. Results showed the applicability and effectiveness of the proposed approach. A comparison with other studies reported in the specialized literature is provided showing the advantages of the proposed approach.

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Microgrids constitute complex systems that integrate distributed generation (DG) and feature different operational modes. The optimal coordination of directional over-current relays (DOCRs) in microgrids is a challenging task, especially if topology changes are taken into account. This paper proposes an adaptive protection approach that takes advantage of multiple setting groups that are available in commercial DOCRs to account for network topology changes in microgrids. Because the number of possible topologies is greater than the available setting groups, unsupervised learning techniques are explored to classify network topologies into a number of clusters that is equal to the number of setting groups. Subsequently, optimal settings are calculated for every topology cluster. Every setting is saved in the DOCRs as a different setting group that would be activated when a corresponding topology takes place. Several tests are performed on a benchmark IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) microgrid, evidencing the applicability of the proposed approach.

The ever increasing presence of renewable distributed generation (DG) in microgrids is imposing new challenges in protection coordination. The high penetration of renewable DG enables microgrids to operate under different topologies, giving rise to bidirectional power flows and in consequence, rendering traditional coordination approaches inappropriate to guarantee network security. This paper proposes an approach for the optimal coordination of directional over-current relays (OCRs) in microgrids that integrate renewable DG and feature several operational modes. As a main contribution, the characteristic curves of directional OCRs are considered to be decision variables, instead of fixing a single type of curve for all relays as considered in previous works. The proposed approach allows for the selection of several IEC and IEEE curves which combination results in the best protection coordination. Several tests were carried out on an IEC benchmark microgrid in order to show the applicability of the proposed approach. Furthermore, a comparison with other coordination approaches evidenced that the proposed approach is able to find lower operation times and, at the same time, guarantee the suitable operation of protections under different condition faults and operational modes.

Protection coordination of AC microgrids (MGs) is a challenging task since they can operate either in grid-connected or islanded mode which drastically modifies the fault currents. In this context, traditional approaches to protection coordination, that only consider the time multiplier setting (TMS) as a decision variable may no longer be able to guarantee network security. This paper presents a novel approach for protection coordination in AC MGs that incorporates non-standard characteristic features of directional over-current relays (OCRs). Three optimization variables are considered for each relay: TMS, maximum limit of the plug setting multiplier (PSM) and standard characteristic curve (SCC). The proposed model corresponds to a mixed integer non-linear programming problem. Four metaheuristic techniques were implemented for solving the optimal coordination problem, namely: particle swarm optimization (PSO), genetic algorithm (GA), teaching-learning based optimization (TLBO) algorithm and shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA). Numerous tests were run on an IEC MG as well as with the distribution portion of the IEEE 30-bus test system. Both systems incorporate distributed generation (DG) and feature several modes of operation. A comparison was made with other MG protection coordination approaches proposed in the specialized literature. In all cases, the proposed approach found reduced coordination times, evidencing the applicability and efficacy of the proposed approach.

Este artículo presenta un modelo para el Planeamiento Integrado de la Expansión en Generación y Transmisión (PIEGT). La contribución principal de este artículo consiste en la utilización de los índices nodales de Alivio de Carga en Transmisión Ponderada (WTLR, Weighted Transmission Loading Relief) para la identificación de nuevos candidatos de expansión (líneas y generadores). Los índices WTLR están dados en función de los factores de distribución de potencia y permiten medir la severidad de las sobrecargas, tanto en operación normal, como en contingencia (criterio N-1). La aplicabilidad del modelo propuesto se evaluó en el sistema de prueba IEEE RTS de 24 barras. El PIEGT se solucionó mediante la técnica de Algoritmos Genéticos Clasificados No-dominados II (NSGA-II, Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II) teniendo como objetivos la minimización de costos y la maximización de la seguridad del sistema. La inclusión de generación como alternativa en la expansión reduce el número de líneas de transmisión necesarias del plan de expansión, especialmente cuando se tienen en cuenta criterios de seguridad.

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En la última década, un gran número de trabajos de investigación han abordado el problema de la expansión de los sistemas de potencia, coordinando en un solo problema de optimización el planeamiento de expansión de la generación (GEP, Generation Expansion Planning) y el planeamiento de expansión de la transmisión (TEP, Transmission Expansion Planning). El GEP normalmente se lleva a cabo sin tener en cuenta las restricciones de red y desde una perspectiva energética. Por otro lado, el TEP busca encontrar los refuerzos en la red, que atiendan una demanda futura de forma económica y confiable. La integración de estos problemas ha sido abordada utilizando diferentes métodos, modelos y funciones objetivo. En este artículo se presenta una revisión bibliográfica del problema del planeamiento integrado GEP-TEP desde diferentes puntos de vista como su modelado, métodos de solución, consideraciones de confiabilidad, entre otros. En la literatura especializada se encuentran artículos de revisión que caracterizan de forma independiente los problemas GEP y TEP. Sin embargo, no se encuentran revisiones que aborden problema GEP-TEP integrado. Surge entonces la necesidad de caracterizar los aspectos del planeamiento de la expansión integrada de los sistemas de potencia, con el propósito de proporcionar herramientas de consulta para los investigadores en este campo.