American Biotic Interchange. They are not sister-taxa e Cuvieronius hyodon is sister-taxon of Rhynchotherium, and this clade is closer to Notiomastodon platensis than to the other proboscideans, supporting the hypothesis of independent origins. Notiomastodon platensis has a continuous record from the Early Pleistocene to Early Holocene, when it became extinct, probably due to synergy of human impact and climatic changes during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. In contrast, extinction of Cuvieronius hyodon happened much earlier, and it was not related to the terminal Pleistocene event that lead the extinction of selected megafauna in South America, including Notiomastodon.

Biodiversity of tropical Saturniidae, as measured through traditionally described and catalogued species, strongly risks pooling cryptic species under one name. We examined the DNA barcodes, morphology, habitus and ecology of 32 ‘well known’ species of dry forest saturniid moths from Area de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG) in north-western Costa Rica and found that they contain as many as 49 biological entities that are probably separate species. The most prominent splitting of traditional species – Eacles imperialis, Automeris zugana, Automeris tridens, Othorene verana, Hylesia dalina, Dirphia avia, Syssphinx molina, Syssphinx colla, and Syssphinx quadrilineata – is where one species was believed to breed in dry forest and rain forest, but is found to be two biological entities variously distinguishable by DNA barcodes and morphology, habitus, and/or microecological distribution. This implies that ‘standard’ biological information about each traditional species may be an unconscious mix of interspecific information, and begs renewed DNA barcoding, closer attention to so-called intraspecific variation, and increased museum collection and curation of specimens from more individual and ecologically characterised sites – as well as eventually more species descriptions. Simultaneously, this inclusion of sibling species as individual entities in biodiversity studies, rather than pooled under one traditional name, reduces the degree of ecological and evolutionary generalisation perceived by the observer.

A list with comments on status, natural history, biology, hosts and distribution are presented for all species of Castniidae known from Paraguay. All the presented information has been summarized based on literature, museum specimens, information gathered from researchers/collectors and personal observations. New synonyms are proposed: Imara satrapes catharina (Preiss) [= Imara satrapes (Kollar)] and Castnia juturna paraguayensis Strand (= Castnia invaria penelope Schaufuss), and synonymic lists are given in each case. Twelve species are recorded from Paraguay, four of them are relatively common and have been previously reported from the country [Synpalamides phalaris (Fabricius), Synpalamides rubrophalaris (Houlbert), Castnia invaria penelope Schaufuss, Gazera heliconioides micha (H. Druce)]. The other eight species are much less common in collections [Imara satrapes, Castnia juturna Hopffer, Telchin licus laura (H. Druce), Ceretes marcelserres (Godart), Riechia acraeoides (Guérin-Méneville), Prometheus cochrus (Fabricius), Frostetola gramivora (Schaus), Paysandisia archon (Burmeister)]. Telchin licus laura (H. Druce) and Frostetola gramivora (Schaus) are reported from this country for the first time. Four species not known from Paraguay, but suitable to be found within, are also mentioned [Yagra fonscolombe (Godart), Castnia lecerfi Dalla Torre, Geyeria uruguayana (Burmeister), Ceretes thais (Drury)].

Ctenomys dorsalis is known only from its type specimen, a female preserved as skin without skull (except for the upper incisors) from an imprecise locality in the “Northern Chaco of Paraguay”. Here, we report additional individuals of this species housed, since the 1940s, at the Field Museum of Natural History (Chicago, USA). Based on these specimens, which fully match the original description of this rodent, we provide novel information regarding its phylogenetic position, external and cranial morphology, and distribution. The analysis of mtDNA sequences supports the distinctiveness of this taxon and suggests its placement within the boliviensis group of Ctenomys. Our study highlights once more the importance of museum collections as repositories of biodiversity.

Despite great xenarthran biodiversity, the Paraguayan armadillos and anteaters have received little attention from biologists and few data have been published about the distribution and status of the species. Furthermore, errors and contradictions persist in the literature. This paper collates specimen and literature data about this group to act as a basis for the stimulation of future research. Xenarthran specimens in all the major Paraguayan collections and all significant specimens in international collections were examined. Specimen data were collated and supplemented with literature and photographic data. Distribution data are provided according to a hierarchy of record reliability including examined specimens, non-examined specimens, literature records, photographic records, and significant observations. Thirteen species (11 armadillos and two anteaters) are confirmed to be present in Paraguay. Relevant discussion and distribution maps are provided for each species. Specimens of both Dasypus septemcinctus septemcinc tus and D. s. hybridus were examined and their distribution is clarified. There is no evidence that Bradypus variegatus occurs in Paraguay. Most xenarthran specimens were collected at least 35 years ago, and the specimen record may no longer represent current distribution given the rapidly changing landscape in the country. It is concluded that available data on Paraguayan Xenarthra shows a heavy bias taxonomically towards a few species (Dasypus novemcinctus, Tolypeutes matacus, and Euphractus sexcinctus) and geographically towards the Chaco region. Distribution in the Oriental region is poorly understood, and species that are confined to that region are known from few specimens. The southern portion of the Oriental region has been virtually unsampled.

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Resumen Reportamos un Tamandua tetradactyla albino fotografiado en la naturaleza y proveniente del suroeste de Paraguay, departamento de Ñeembucú. Se trata aparentemente del primer caso documentado de albinismo en la especie y el primer registro de esta especie en el departamento de Ñeembucú.