A 21-year-old female patient visited our hospital for febrile sensation, coughing, sputum, diarrhoea, and shortness of breath during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Daegu, South Korea. Nasopharyngeal swab was positive for COVID-19. Troponin I level was 1.26 ng/mL (<0.3 ng/mL) and NT-proBNP was 1929 pg/mL (<125 pg/ mL). The chest radiograph revealed a multifocal consolidation on both lung fields and cardiomegaly (Panel A). Electrocardiography showed nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay and multiple premature ventricular complexes (Panel B). Echocardiography showed severe left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction (Supplementary material online, Videos S1-S3). A chest computed tomography (CT) revealed a multifocal consolidation and ground-glass opacification in both lungs in the lower lobe and a peripheral dominant distribution (Panel C). On the cardiac CT, the coronary arteries were normal (Panels D-G), and the myocardium was hypertrophied due to oedema combined with a subendocardial perfusion defect on the lateral left ventricle (Panel N). Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a diffuse high signal intensity (SI) in the LV myocardium on T2 short tau inversion recovery image (Panels H-J; SI ratio of myocardium over skeletal muscle ¼ 2.2), and myocardial wall thickening (LV mass index: 111.3 g/m 2 ), which suggests myocardial wall oedema. On mapping sequence, native T1 ( Figure 1K-M; mid-septum, 1431 ms; lateral wall, 1453 ms, reference value 1150 ms) and extracellular volume (Panels P-R; mid-septum, 29.7%; lateral wall, 61%; reference value 25%) values were diffusely increased (Panel O). Extensive transmural late gadolinium enhancement was noted (Panels S-U).

Background Little is known about the relationship between intrinsic cardiac nerve activity (ICNA) and spontaneous arrhythmias in ambulatory animals. Methods and Results We implanted radiotransmitters to record extrinsic cardiac nerve activity (ECNA, including stellate ganglion nerve activity, SGNA; vagal nerve activity, VNA) and ICNA (including superior left ganglionated plexi nerve activity, SLGPNA; ligament of Marshall nerve activity, LOMNA) in 6 ambulatory dogs. Intermittent rapid left atrial pacing was performed to induce paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (PAF) or atrial tachycardia (PAT). The vast majority (94%) of LOMNA were preceded or co-activated with ECNA (SGNA or VNA), whereas 6% of episodes were activated alone without concomitant SGNA or VNA. PAF and PAT were invariably (100%) preceded (<5 s) by ICNA. Most of PAT events (89%) were preceded by ICNA and sympathovagal co-activation, whereas 11% were preceded by ICNA and SGNA-only activation. Most of PAF events were preceded only by ICNA (72%); the remaining 28% by ECNA and ICNA together. Complex fractionated atrial electrograms (CFAEs) were observed during ICNA discharges that preceded the onset of PAT and PAF. Immunostaining confirmed the presence of both adrenergic and cholinergic nerve at ICNA sites. Conclusions There is a significant temporal relationship between ECNA and ICNA. However, ICNA can also activate alone. All PAT and PAF episodes were invariably preceded by ICNA. These findings suggest that ICNA (either alone or in collaboration with ECNA) is an invariable trigger of paroxysmal atrial tachyarrhythmias. ICNA might contaminate local atrial electrograms, resulting in CFAE-like activity.

Background - COVID-19 has led to over 1 million deaths worldwide and has been associated with cardiac complications including cardiac arrhythmias. The incidence and pathophysiology of these manifestations remain elusive. In this worldwide survey of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 who developed cardiac arrhythmias, we describe clinical characteristics associated with various arrhythmias, as well as global differences in modulations of routine electrophysiology practice during the pandemic. Methods - We conducted a retrospective analysis of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infection worldwide with and without incident cardiac arrhythmias. Patients with documented atrial fibrillation (AF), atrial flutter (AFL), supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), non-sustained or sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT), ventricular fibrillation (VF), atrioventricular block (AVB), or marked sinus bradycardia (HR<40bpm) were classified as having arrhythmia. De-identified data was provided by each institution and analyzed. Results - Data was collected for 4,526 patients across 4 continents and 12 countries, 827 of whom had an arrhythmia. Cardiac comorbidities were common in patients with arrhythmia: 69% had hypertension, 42% diabetes mellitus, 30% had heart failure and 24% coronary artery disease. Most had no prior history of arrhythmia. Of those who did develop an arrhythmia, the majority (81.8%) developed atrial arrhythmias, 20.7% developed ventricular arrhythmias, and 22.6% had bradyarrhythmia. Regional differences suggested a lower incidence of AF in Asia compared to other continents (34% vs. 63%). Most patients in in North America and Europe received hydroxychloroquine, though the frequency of hydroxychloroquine therapy was constant across arrhythmia types. Forty-three percent of patients who developed arrhythmia were mechanically ventilated and 51% survived to hospital discharge. Many institutions reported drastic decreases in electrophysiology procedures performed. Conclusions - Cardiac arrhythmias are common and associated with high morbidity and mortality among patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infection. There were significant regional variations in the types of arrhythmias and treatment approaches.

Background-Recent evidence indicates that membrane voltage and Ca 2ϩ clocks jointly regulate sinoatrial node (SAN) automaticity. Here we test the hypothesis that sinus rate acceleration by ␤-adrenergic stimulation involves synergistic interactions between these clock mechanisms. Methods and Results-We simultaneously mapped intracellular calcium (Ca i ) and membrane potential in 25 isolated canine right atrium, using previously described criteria of the timing of late diastolic Ca i elevation (LDCAE) relative to the action potential upstroke to detect the Ca 2ϩ clock. Before isoproterenol, the earliest pacemaking site occurred in the inferior SAN, and LDCAE was observed in only 4 of 25 preparations. Isoproterenol infusion (1 mol/L) increased sinus rate and shifted pacemaking site to superior SAN, concomitant with the appearance of LDCAE preceding the action potential upstroke by 98Ϯ31 ms. Caffeine had similar effects, whereas sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca 2ϩ depletion with ryanodine and thapsigargin prevented isoproterenol-induced LDCAE and blunted sinus rate acceleration. Ca i transient relaxation time during isoproterenol was shorter in superior SAN (124Ϯ34 ms) than inferior SAN (138Ϯ24 ms; Pϭ0.01) or right atrium (164Ϯ33 ms; Pϭ0.001) and was associated with a lower sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca 2ϩ ATPase pump to phospholamban protein ratio in SAN than in right atrium. Hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker current (I f ) blockade with ZD 7288 modestly blunted but did not prevent LDCAE or sinus rate acceleration by isoproterenol. Conclusions-Acceleration

Background We hypothesize that left sided low-level vagus nerve stimulation (LL-VNS) can suppress sympathetic outflow and reduce atrial tachyarrhythmias in ambulatory dogs. Methods and Results We implanted in 12 dogs a neurostimulator to stimulate left cervical vagus nerve and a radiotransmitter for continuous recording of left stellate ganglion nerve activities (SGNA), vagal nerve activities (VNA) and electrocardiograms. Group 1 dogs (N=6) underwent 1 week continuous LL-VNS. Group 2 dogs (N=6) underwent intermittent rapid atrial pacing followed by active or sham LL-VNS on alternate weeks. Integrated SGNA was significantly reduced during LL-VNS (7.8 mV-s; 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.94 to 8.66] vs. 9.4 mV-s [CI, 8.5 to 10.3] at baseline, P=0.033) in Group 1.The reduction was most apparent at 8 AM, along with a significantly reduced heart rate (P=0.008). LL-VNS did not change VNA. The density of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerves in the left stellate ganglion one week after cessation of LL-VNS were 99684 µm2/mm2 (CI, 28850 to 170517) in LL-VNS dogs and 186561 µm2/ mm2 (CI, 154956 to 218166; P=0.008) in normal dogs. In Group 2, the frequencies of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and tachycardia during active LL-VNS were 1.4/day (CI, 0.5/day to 5.1/day) and 8.0/day (CI, 5.3/day to 12.0/day), respectively, significantly lower than during sham stimulation (9.2/day [CI, 5.3/day to 13.1/day], P=0.001 and 22.0/day [CI, 19.1/day to 25.5/day], P<0.001, respectively). Conclusions LL-VNS suppresses SGNA and reduces the incidences of paroxysmal atrial tachyarrhythmias in ambulatory dogs. Significant neural remodeling of the left stellate ganglion is evident one week after cessation of chronic LL-VNS.

BACKGROUND-Heart rate variability (HRV), calculated in the frequency or time domain, decreases in congestive heart failure (CHF). In HRV power spectral analysis, the low-frequency (LF) component diminishes in patients with CHF and the decrease is related to an increased risk of sudden death.

Objectives The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes of left stellate ganglionic nerve activity (SGNA) and left thoracic vagal nerve activity (VNA) after acute myocardial infarction (MI). Background Whether MI results in remodeling of extracardiac nerve activity remains unclear. Methods We implanted radiotransmitters to record the SGNA, VNA, and electrocardiogram in 9 ambulatory dogs. After baseline monitoring, MI was created by 1-h balloon occlusion of the coronary arteries. The dogs were then continuously monitored for 2 months. Both stellate ganglia were stained for growth-associated protein 43 and synaptophysin. The stellate ganglia from 5 normal dogs were used as control. Results MI increased 24-h integrated SGNA from 7.44 ± 7.19 Ln(Vs)/day at baseline to 8.09 ± 7.75 Ln(Vs)/day after the MI (p < 0.05). The 24-h integrated VNA before and after the MI was 5.29 ± 5.04 Ln(Vs)/day and 5.58 ± 5.15 Ln(Vs)/day, respectively (p < 0.05). A significant 24-h circadian variation was noted for the SGNA (p < 0.05) but not the VNA. The SGNA/VNA ratio also showed significant circadian variation. The nerve densities from the left SG were 63,218 ± 34,719 μm2/mm2 and 20,623 ± 4,926 μm2/mm2 for growth-associated protein 43 (p < 0.05) and were 32,116 ± 8,190 μm2/mm2 and 16,326 ± 4,679 μm2/mm2 for synaptophysin (p < 0.05) in MI and control groups, respectively. The right SG also showed increased nerve density after MI (p < 0.05). Conclusions MI results in persistent increase in the synaptic density of bilateral stellate ganglia and is associated with increased SGNA and VNA. There is a circadian variation of the SGNA/VNA ratio. These data indicate significant remodeling of the extracardiac autonomic nerve activity and structures after MI.

Objectives This study sought to find out more about the relationship between sympathetic and vagal nerve activity and the cardiac repolarization in a canine model of pacing-induced tachycardia congestive heart failure (CHF). Background The QT variability index (QTVI), a noninvasive marker of temporal cardiac repolarization dispersion, is among the risk factors for sudden death during CHF. Among factors influencing this variable are the myocardial damage and the autonomic nervous system activity typical of dilated cardiomyopathy. Methods We assessed autonomic nervous system activity recorded from an implanted data transmitter that monitored integrated left stellate-ganglion nervous activity, integrated vagus nerve activity, and electrocardiogram. We collected 36 segments recorded at baseline and 36 after induced CHF. We then arbitrarily identified recording segments as containing low or high sympathetic activity values, and we compared corrected QT intervals and the QTVI under a given sympathetic activity condition at baseline and after inducing CHF. Results In the high sympathetic activity subgroup, both QT variables increased from baseline to CHF (corrected QT intervals, p < 0.01; QTVI, p < 0.05) whereas in the low sympathetic activity subgroup they remained unchanged. The baseline QTVI correlated inversely with integrated vagus nerve activity (r2 = 0.16; β = −0.47; p < 0.05) whereas, during CHF, the QTVI correlated directly with integrated left stellate-ganglion nervous activity (r2 = 0.32; β = 0.27, p < 0.01). Conclusions During CHF, sympathetic activation is associated with an increase in the QT interval and QTVI. Because these changes vary over time, they could result from myocardial structural damage and sympathetic activation combined. Conversely, under normal conditions, no relationship exists between sympathetic activation and the QT variables.