Starch can be exploited as an abundant resource for sustainable production of diverse chemical intermediates such as hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). We present a simple process of producing HMF from starches using an ionic liquid, 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([OMIM]Cl), and CrCl 2 catalyst. The addition of HCl and CrCl 2 significantly affected the yields of HMF on the whole. CrCl 2 increased the yields of HMF by approximately two-folds on average. The synthesis of HMF was most effective between 60 and 90 min reaction time at both concentrations of 0.3 and 0.5 M HCl. Starch concentration had influence on the productivity of HMF. At 20% starch concentration with 0.3 and 0.5 M HCl, its productivity was greatest (2.8 folds high). Eight starch sources (corn, wheat, rice, potato tuber, sweet potato, tapioca, acorn, and kudzu starch) were tested for the synthesis of HMF. The highest yields of HMF (73.0 AE 3.8 wt%) were obtained in tapioca starch dissolved in 0.5 M HCl.
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is an important chemical intermediate, but it has not been widely used because of low yields and high production costs. Sucrose is available at lower costs than other sugars and thus could be a biomass-derived abundant source for HMF production. In this study, a catalytic process for efficiently producing HMF from sucrose was scrutinized using 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium chloride ([MOIM]Cl) as a reaction solvent, and HCl and metal chlorides (CrCl 2 and Zncl 2 ) as a catalyst. The rate of sucrose hydrolysis was relatively much faster in the reactions with HCl than without it. The hydrolysis of sucrose to fructose and glucose was affected by its reaction time. The mixed solvent of 50% [MOIM]Cl and 50% sucrose solution with HCl was more effective in HMF synthesis than single solvent alone. The addition of ZnCl 2 and CrCl 2 increased HMF yields by approximately 1.2-1.8-fold and its higher yield was found in the latter. The highest yield (82.0±3.9 wt%) in HMF production was achieved in the reaction mixture containing 5 g [MOIM]Cl and 5 mL of 20% sucrose solution with 0.5 M HCl plus CrCl 2 at 30 min reaction time. However, 0.3 M HCl was more effective for the HMF productivity than 0.5 M HCl.
To evaluate the antiallergic effect of fermented Ixeris sonchifolia (IS, family Compositae), we prepared IS kimchi, isolated lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from it, fermented IS with these LAB, and investigated their antiallergic effects. IS kimchi inhibited the passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction induced by an IgE-antigen complex as well as the scratching behavior induced by compound 48/ 80 or histamine more potently than IS. When IS was fermented with LAB isolated from IS kimchi, its antiallergic effects was also increased. Of LAB used for fermentation, Lactobacillus brevis more potently increased the antiallergic effects. Its main constituents, chlorogenic acid and luteolin, potently inhibited the PCA reaction induced by the IgEantigen complex as well as the pruritis induced by compound 48/80 or histamine. These constituents inhibited the expression of proinflammatory and allergic cytokines, TNF-α and IL-4, and transcription factor NF-κB activation induced by the IgE-antigen complex in RBL-2H3 cells, as well as the degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells induced by the IgE-antigen complex. Luteolin more potently inhibited these allergic reactions than chlorogenic acid. These findings suggest that the antiallergic effect of IS can be increased by LAB fermentation, and the fermented IS might improve allergic reactions such as pruritus, anaphylaxis, and inflammation.
Petasites japonicus (PJ, family Asteraceae) was fermented with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Bifidobacterium breve (BB) or Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA), and its allergic effect was investigated. LAB-fermented PJs more potently inhibited IgEÁantigen-stimulated degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells than non-fermented PJ, with BB-fermented PJ more potent than LA-fermented PJ. Fermented PJ more potently inhibited TNF-a and IL-4 cytokine expression and transcription factor NF-kB activation in IgE-induced RBL-2H3 cells. PJ and BB-fermented PJ also inhibited IgEÁantigen-induced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reactions as well as compound 48/80-induced scratching behaviours in mice, with fermented PJ more potent than non-fermented PJ. These findings suggest that PJ may show anti-allergic effects by inhibiting degranulation, and TNF-a and IL-4 expression and its anti-allergic effects can be enhanced by LAB fermentation.
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