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S Theories about reading have neglected basic differences in the developmental trajectories of skills related to reading. This essay proposes that some reading skills, such as learning the letters of the alphabet, are constrained to small sets of knowledge that are mastered in relatively brief periods of development. In contrast, other skills, such as vocabulary, are unconstrained by the knowledge to be acquired or the duration of learning. The conceptual, developmental, and methodological constraints on different reading skills are described in this essay that identifies various types of constraints on reading constructs and measures. Examples of reading research and assessment are discussed to illustrate (a) how the constraints can help to explain transitory correlational patterns among reading data, (b) how proxy effects surrounding constrained skills influence interpretations of reading development, (c) how prescriptions to teach constrained skills are causal misinterpretations of longitudinal correlations, and (d) why interventions on constrained skills usually lead only to temporary gains on skills aligned with the constrained skill. Because constrained skills are not normally distributed conceptually or empirically, except on special occasions, analyses based on parametric statistics are inappropriate. This essay describes implications for theories of reading development, research methods, and educational policies; the “extra” commentary linked to the online version of the article expands on this latter theme. Las teorías acerca de la lectura han descuidado diferencias básicas en el camino evolutivo de las habilidades relacionadas con la lectura. Este ensayo propone que ciertas habilidades de lectura, como el aprendizaje de las letras del alfabeto, están restringidas a pequeños conjuntos de conocimientos cuyo dominio se concreta en períodos relativamente breves. En contraste, otras habilidades tales como el vocabulario, no están restringidas por el conocimiento que se adquirirá ni por la duración del aprendizaje. En este ensayo se describen las restricciones conceptuales, evolutivas y metodológicas en diferentes habilidades de lectura; el mismo identifica varios tipos de restricciones en las conceptualizaciones sobre la lectura y en las medidas de lectura. Se discuten ejemplos de investigación y evaluación en lectura para ilustrar: a) de qué modo las restricciones pueden ayudar a explicar patrones correlacionales transitorios entre los datos de lectura, b) cómo efectos secundarios próximos a las habilidades restringidas influencian las interpretaciones del desarrollo en lectura, c) cómo ciertas propuestas para enseñar habilidades restringidas son malas interpretaciones causales de correlaciones longitudinales y d) por qué las intervenciones sobre las habilidades restringidas generalmente conducen sólo a logros temporarios en habilidades afines a la habilidad restringida. Debido a que las habilidades restringidas, excepto en ocasiones especiales, no están normalmente distribuidas conceptual o empíri...

The terms reading skill and reading strategy are central to how we conceptualize and teach reading. Despite their importance and widespread use, the terms are not consistently used or understood. This article examines the current and historical uses of the terms, defines them, and describes their differences, similarities, and relationships. Implications for teaching reading skills and strategies are discussed.

S This article explains the creation and validation of the Narrative Comprehension of Picture Books task (NC task), an assessment of young children's comprehension of wordless picture books. Study 1 explored developmental changes among 158 K‐2 children in narrative comprehension and the correlations among children's performance on the NC task and other measures of early reading. There was significant improvement with increasing age on NC task measures. Significant concurrent validity was found between the NC task and oral reading comprehension for readers and between the NC task and several prereading skills for prereaders. Study 2 tested the generalizability of the NC task by giving a sub‐sample of students (n = 91) two additional picture books using the NC task procedures. Intertask correlations showed that children were consistent on each of the NC task dependent variables across the three books. The same developmental trends by grade and reading ability were evident on all three versions of the task. Study 3 confirmed the generalizability of the NC task across children, books, and testers, and it revealed sensitivity to longitudinal growth in children's comprehension skills. There was little evidence of practice effects influencing NC scores. Study 3 also revealed significant concurrent and predictive validity between NC measures and other assessments of early reading skills such as the Gates McGinitie Reading Test and the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. The NC task is a valid quantitative measure of young children's comprehension that is sensitive to developmental changes and adaptable to various books. We discuss how narrative comprehension is fundamental to beginning reading and how the NC task may be used for classroom instruction and assessment.

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Children's awareness about their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in their learning and development. This role was examined in an experimental study of third and fifth graders' reading comprehension. Children from four classrooms were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), that was designed to increase children's awareness and use of effective reading strategies. Children who participated in ISL made larger gains than did children in control classrooms on cloze and error detection tasks. No differences between groups were found on two standardized tests of reading comprehension. This study demonstrates that metacognition can be promoted through direct instruction in classrooms and that increased awareness can lead to better use of reading strategies.

Children's understanding of their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in learning and development. In this study, we examine the developing relation between children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Children in third-and fifth-grade classes were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), designed to increase their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In both grades, children in experimental classes made significant gains in metacognition and the use of reading strategies compared with children in control classes. The multivariate profiles of reading skills derived from the developmental analyses helped to identify subgroups of children who responded differently to the metacognitive instruction. Although there were specific aptitude-by-treatment interactions, there was a general trend for metacognition and strategic reading to become more congruent from 8 to 10 years of age.