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This study investigated multiple models for assessing oral reading fluency, including 1‐minute oral reading measures that produce scores reported as words correct per minute (wcpm). We compared a measure of wcpm with measures of the individual and combined indicators of oral reading fluency (rate, accuracy, prosody, and comprehension) to examine construct, criterion, and consequential validity. Oral reading data and standardized comprehension test scores were analyzed for students in grades 2, 4, and 6. Our results indicate that assessments designed to include multiple indicators of oral reading fluency provided a finer‐grained understanding of oral reading fluency and fluency assessment, and a stronger predictor of general comprehension. Comparisons across grade levels also revealed developmental differences in the relation between oral reading fluency and comprehension, and the relative contributions of oral fluency indicators to comprehension. When commonly used benchmarks were applied to wcpm scores to identify students at risk of reading difficulty, both false positives and false negatives were found. This study raises issues regarding the alignment of oral reading fluency definitions and assessment, and the widespread use of wcpm measures and benchmarks to identify students at risk of reading difficulty and to plan instruction. [Note: Sheila Valencia discusses the research presented in this article in a podcast from the “Voice of Literacy”: http://www.voiceofliteracy.org/posts/40043.] استقصت هذه الدراسة نماذج متعددة لتقييم مرونة القراءة الجهرية بما فيها مقاييس القراءة الجهرية مدتها دقيقة واحدة التي تنتج علامات مسجلة ككلمات صحيحة لكل دقيقة. فقد قارننا مقياس من كلمات صحيحة لكل دقيقة ومقاييس من مؤشرات فردية وجماعية في مرونة القراءة الجهرية (السرعة والدقة والنطق والاستيعاب) لنفحص صدق تكوين الاختبار الفرضي والمرتبط بالمحك والمترتبي. وقد تم تحليل علامات الاختبار الاستيعابي المقنن ومعطيات القراءة الجهرية للطلاب في الصف الثاني والرابع والسادس. وتشير نتائجنا إلى أن التقديرات المصممة لتشمل مؤشرات متعددة من مرونة القراءة الجهرية وفرت فهماً أدق لها ولتقدير المرونة وكذلك وفرت منبئاً أقوى للاستيعاب العام. ولقد بينت المقارنات عبر الصفوف اختلافات تطورية في العلاقة بين مرونة القراءة الجهرية والاستيعاب والمساهمات النسبية لمؤشرات الطلاقة اللغوية في الاستيعاب. وحين تم تطبيق المقاييس المستخدمة الشائعة على علامات الكلمات الصحيحة لكل دقيقة لتحديد الطلاب على وشك أن يواجهوا صعوبات في القراءة فقد تم إيجاد إيجابيات زائفة وسلبيات زائفة. وترفع هذه الدراسة القضايا المتعلقة بتناسق مرونة القراءة الجهرية والتقييم والاستخدام الشائع من مقاييس الكلمات الصحيحة لكل دقيقة لتحديد الطلاب المتعرضين للخطر من صعوبة القراءة ولتخطيط التعليم. [Podcast: http://www.voiceofliteracy.org/posts/40043.] 本研究调查用以评估朗读流畅度的多个模型，其中包括通过一分钟的朗读测验来计算出受测者每分钟能正确读出的单词数量(wcpm)。本文作者把一项一分钟朗读测验的结果(wcpm)与几项单独和合并的朗读流畅指标(速度、准确性、韵律和理解)测验的结果作比较，以检查其建构效度、标准效度、后果效度。本文作者分析了二、四、六年级学生的朗读资料及他们的标准化阅读理解测验的成绩。分析结果显示，在设计上如包含多个朗读流畅指标的评估测验，能有助于加深对朗读流畅程度与流畅度评估的认识，并能使其成为较有效的普通阅读理解的预测因子。跨级别的比较结果亦发现朗读流畅程度与阅读理解之间的关系存在着发展差异，以及各个朗读流畅指标对阅读理解的相对预测效能。当常用的基准数值应用于一分钟朗读测验的成绩(wcpm)来确定容易有阅读困难的学生时，假阳...

In this paper we examine reading (dis)ability from an interactionist perspective, and discuss the implications of this view for research on reading disability. The paper is divided into three sections as follows.The first section provides a brief historical perspective of the events leading to current views of reading disability and research practices in this area. The second section presents a review of selected literature that provides an interactionist perspective on reading (dis)ability. The final section provides a discussion of the implications of this perspective for future research on reading disability and presents examples of "interactive" research. Our general thesis in this paper is that research on reading disability must move away from the search for causative factors within the reader and toward the specification of the conditions under which different readers can and will learn.After many years of research on reading disability, the results are still inconclusive. This is true, of course, not only about research on reading disability, but about much of the psychological and educational research on reading. In a recent Reading Research Quarterly editorial, Samuels (1984) attributed the problem to our continued search for universal laws of behavior that will generalize across individuals and situations. He indicated that conflicts have arisen due to our "failure to pay attention to the interactive nature of variables that are found in all experiments" (p. 391), and that we have ignored the fact that variations in subject, skill, task, materials, and context will alter the processes used to achieve the demands of a given experiment.This "interactive" view of reading has become increasingly popular among reading researchers and educators, but has yet to be applied in any significant way to the area of reading disability. Although research in the area of reading ability presses for greater and greater attention to the factors that may influence variability among skilled readers, the research related to reading disability retains its traditional focus on the "search for pathology" (Sarason & Doris, 1979) within the individual. We will argue that research on reading disability needs to undergo a "paradigm The authors have chosen to list their names in alphabetical order. This paper was completed while Marjorie Youmans Lipson was at Eastern Michigan University. 111at NORTH DAKOTA STATE UNIV LIB on June 9, 2015 http://rer.aera.net Downloaded from LlPSON AND WlXSONshift" similar to the one that has occurred in research on reading comprehension (see Pearson, 1979).In this paper we examine reading (dis)ability from an interactionist perspective, and discuss the implications of this view for research on reading disability. We will begin with a brief historical perspective of the events leading to current views of reading disability and research practices in this area. We will then present a review of selected literature that provides an interactionist perspective on reading (dis)ability. Finally, we will discu...

This article focuses on how a statewide reform initiative, when envisioned as a professional development opportunity, impacted teachers’ capacities to become change agents in their classrooms and districts and how individual district contexts shaped the development of those capacities. The interview and artifact data used for this study were gathered from teachers and administrators in four demonstration districts that were involved in a standards-based professional development initiative within the federally funded Michigan English Language Arts Framework (MELAF) project. These data reveal that teachers experienced changes in their personal literacy practices and views of themselves as learners and felt an increased ability to evince change in a variety of educational contexts, including their classrooms, buildings, and districts. Across these changes in teachers’ practices, district patterns emerged that spoke to the individual districts’ capacities to support teacher growth and foster reform. These differences suggest that the changes that took place were a function of many factors, including the size and structure of the district, the district's readiness for change, and the source of language arts leadership within the district. One implication of these results is that the particular histories and competing forces that operate for both individuals and districts shape the implementation of new policy.

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This article describes the role of language and literacy assessment in Response to Intervention, the assessment requirements and intent of RTI legislation, and the assessment principle in the International Reading Association's guiding principles on RTI. It outlines the multiple purposes of assessment required for a coherent RTI system, including screening, diagnostics, formative progress monitoring, benchmark progress monitoring, and summative outcome assessment. Building on this framework, the article then presents types of knowledge and skills teachers and specialists need in order to use assessments and their results effectively in an RTI approach to preventing language and literacy problems.

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