In mammals, circadian control of physiology and behavior is driven by a master pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. We have used gene expression profiling to identify cycling transcripts in the SCN and in the liver. Our analysis revealed approximately 650 cycling transcripts and showed that the majority of these were specific to either the SCN or the liver. Genetic and genomic analysis suggests that a relatively small number of output genes are directly regulated by core oscillator components. Major processes regulated by the SCN and liver were found to be under circadian regulation. Importantly, rate-limiting steps in these various pathways were key sites of circadian control, highlighting the fundamental role that circadian clocks play in cellular and organismal physiology.

SUMMARY While diet-induced obesity has been exclusively attributed to increased caloric intake from fat, animals fed high fat diet (HFD) ad libitum (ad lib) eat frequently throughout day and night disrupting the normal feeding cycle. To test whether obesity and metabolic diseases result from HFD or disruption of metabolic cycles, we subjected mice to either ad lib or time restricted feeding (tRF) of a HFD for 8 h/day. Mice under tRF consume equivalent calories from HFD as those with ad lib access, yet are protected against obesity, hyperinsulinemia, hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and have improved motor coordination. The tRF regimen improved CREB, mTOR and AMPK pathway function and oscillations of the circadian clock and their target genes' expression. These changes in catabolic and anabolic pathways altered liver metabolome, improved nutrient utilization and energy expenditure. We demonstrate in mice that tRF regimen is a non-pharmacological strategy against obesity and associated diseases.

The circadian clock acts at the genomic level to coordinate internal behavioral and physiologic rhythms via the CLOCK-BMAL transcriptional heterodimer. Although the nuclear receptors REV-ERBα and β have been proposed to form an accessory feedback loop that contributes to clock function1,2, their precise roles and importance remain unresolved. To establish their regulatory potential we generated comparative cistromes of both REV-ERB isoforms, which revealed shared recognition at over 50% of their total sites and extensive overlap with the master circadian regulator BMAL1. While Rev-erbα has been shown to directly regulate Bmal1 expression1,2, the cistromic analysis reveals a direct connection between Bmal1 and Rev-erbα and β regulatory circuits than previously suspected. Genes within the intersection of the BMAL1, REV-ERBα and REV-ERBβ cistromes are highly enriched for both clock and metabolic functions. As predicted by the cistromic analysis, dual depletion of Rev-erbα/β function by creating double-knockout mice (DKOs) profoundly disrupted circadian expression of core circadian clock and lipid homeostatic gene networks. As a result, DKOs show strikingly altered circadian wheel-running behavior and deregulated lipid metabolism. These data now ally Rev-erbα/β with Per, Cry and other components of the principal feedback loop that drives circadian expression and suggest a more integral mechanism for the coordination of circadian rhythm and metabolism.

The circadian clock is a molecular and cellular oscillator found in most mammalian tissues that regulates rhythmic physiology and behavior. Numerous investigations have addressed the contribution of circadian rhythmicity to cellular, organ, and organismal physiology. We recently developed a method to look at transcriptional oscillations with unprecedented precision and accuracy using high-density time sampling. Here, we report a comparison of oscillating transcription from mouse liver, NIH3T3, and U2OS cells. Several surprising observations resulted from this study, including a 100-fold difference in the number of cycling transcripts in autonomous cellular models of the oscillator versus tissues harvested from intact mice. Strikingly, we found two clusters of genes that cycle at the second and third harmonic of circadian rhythmicity in liver, but not cultured cells. Validation experiments show that 12-hour oscillatory transcripts occur in several other peripheral tissues as well including heart, kidney, and lungs. These harmonics are lost ex vivo, as well as under restricted feeding conditions. Taken in sum, these studies illustrate the importance of time sampling with respect to multiple testing, suggest caution in use of autonomous cellular models to study clock output, and demonstrate the existence of harmonics of circadian gene expression in the mouse.

Summary A diurnal rhythm of eating-fasting promotes health, but humans’ eating pattern is rarely assessed. Using a mobile app, we monitored ingestion events in healthy adults with no shift-work for several days. Most subjects ate frequently and erratically throughout wakeful hours and overnight fasting duration paralleled time in bed. There was a bias toward eating late, with estimated <25% calories being consumed before noon and >35% after 6pm. “Metabolic jetlag” resulting from weekday/weekend variation in eating pattern akin to travel across time-zones was prevalent. The daily intake duration (95% interval) exceeded 14.75 h for half the cohort. When overweight individuals with >14 h eating duration ate for only 10–11 h daily for 16 weeks assisted by a data visualization (raster plot of dietary intake pattern, “feedogram”) that we developed, they reduced body weight, reported being energetic, and improved sleep. Benefits persisted for a year.

Circadian timing is generated through a unique series of autoregulatory interactions termed the molecular clock. Behavioral rhythms subject to the molecular clock are well characterized. We demonstrate a role for Bmal1 and Clock in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Inactivation of the known clock components Bmal1 (Mop3) and Clock suppress the diurnal variation in glucose and triglycerides. Gluconeogenesis is abolished by deletion of Bmal1 and is depressed in Clock mutants, but the counterregulatory response of corticosterone and glucagon to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia is retained. Furthermore, a high-fat diet modulates carbohydrate metabolism by amplifying circadian variation in glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, and mutation of Clock restores the chow-fed phenotype. Bmal1 and Clock, genes that function in the core molecular clock, exert profound control over recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycaemia. Furthermore, asynchronous dietary cues may modify glucose homeostasis via their interactions with peripheral molecular clocks.

SUMMARY Because current therapeutics for obesity are limited and only offer modest improvements, novel interventions are needed. Preventing obesity with time-restricted feeding (TRF; 8-9h food access in the active phase) is promising, yet its therapeutic applicability against preexisting obesity, diverse nutritional challenges, and less stringent eating patterns is unknown. Here we tested TRF in mice under diverse nutritional challenges. We show that TRF attenuated metabolic diseases arising from a variety of obesogenic diets and that benefits were proportional to the fasting duration. Furthermore, protective effects were maintained even when TRF was temporarily interrupted by ad libitum access to food during weekends, a regimen particularly relevant to human lifestyle. Finally, TRF stabilized and reversed the progression of metabolic diseases in mice with pre-existing obesity and type II diabetes. We establish clinically relevant parameters of TRF for preventing and treating obesity and metabolic disorders, including type II diabetes, hepatic steatosis, and hypercholesterolemia.

The mammalian circadian clock plays an integral role in timing rhythmic physiology and behavior, such as locomotor activity, with anticipated daily environmental changes. The master oscillator resides within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which can maintain circadian rhythms in the absence of synchronizing light input. Here, we describe a genomics-based approach to identify circadian activators of Bmal1, itself a key transcriptional activator that is necessary for core oscillator function. Using cell-based functional assays, as well as behavioral and molecular analyses, we identified Rora as an activator of Bmal1 transcription within the SCN. Rora is required for normal Bmal1 expression and consolidation of daily locomotor activity and is regulated by the core clock in the SCN. These results suggest that opposing activities of the orphan nuclear receptors Rora and Rev-erb alpha, which represses Bmal1 expression, are important in the maintenance of circadian clock function.