Water is of fundamental importance for life on earth. The synthesis and structure of cell constituents and transport of nutrients into the cells as well as body metabolism depend on water. The contaminations present in water disturb the spontaneity of the mechanism and result in long/short-term diseases. The probable contaminations and their possible routes are discussed in the present review. Continued research efforts result in some processes/technologies to remove the contaminations from water. The review includes concepts and potentialities of the technologies in a comprehensible form. It also includes some meaningful hybrid technologies and promising awaited technologies in coming years.

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Water utilities particularly in the developing countries continue to operate with considerable inefficiencies in terms of water and revenue losses. With increasing water demand and scarcity, utilities require effective strategies for optimum use of available water resources. Diverse water loss reduction options exist. Deciding on which option to choose amidst conflicting multiple criteria and different interests of stakeholders is a challenging task. In this paper, an integrated multi-criteria decision-aiding framework for strategic planning of water loss management is presented. The PROMETHEE II method was applied within the framework in prioritizing water loss reduction options for Kampala city. A strategic plan that combines selective mains and service lines replacement and pressure management as priorities is the best compromise based on preferences of the decision makers and seven evaluation criteria characterized by financial-economic, environmental, public health, technical and social impacts. The results show that the most preferred options are those that enhance water supply reliability, public health and water conservation measures. This study demonstrates how decision theory coupled with operational research techniques could be applied in practice to solve complex water management and planning problems.

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Apparent losses relate to water that is consumed but not paid for. Most research carried out in the last decade particularly in the United Kingdom focused mainly on leakage. Until now, there are no set procedures and guidelines for assessment of apparent losses. Much work remains to bring it to par with the available tools and methodologies for leakage management. In the absence of adequate data and proper methodology, most developed countries use default values, which tend to be lowest values for well-managed water systems, for computation of apparent losses. These may not be appropriate for developing countries. This paper presents a methodology for the assessment of different components of apparent losses based on field audit and operational data for Kampala city's water distribution system in Uganda. Metering inaccuracies and illegal use have been found to be significant components of apparent losses. Appropriate intervention strategies have been developed based on the assessment.

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