The LysR family of transcriptional regulators represents the most abundant type of transcriptional regulator in the prokaryotic kingdom. Members of this family have a conserved structure with an Nterminal DNA-binding helix-turn-helix motif and a C-terminal co-inducer-binding domain. Despite considerable conservation both structurally and functionally, LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) regulate a diverse set of genes, including those involved in virulence, metabolism, quorum sensing and motility. Numerous structural and transcriptional studies of members of the LTTR family are helping to unravel a compelling paradigm that has evolved from the original observations and conclusions that were made about this family of transcriptional regulators.

Bacteria commonly utilise a unique type of transporter, called Feo, to specifically acquire the ferrous (Fe2+) form of iron from their environment. Enterobacterial Feo systems are composed of three proteins: FeoA, a small, soluble SH3-domain protein probably located in the cytosol; FeoB, a large protein with a cytosolic N-terminal G-protein domain and a C-terminal integral inner-membrane domain containing two 'Gate' motifs which likely functions as the Fe2+ permease; and FeoC, a small protein apparently functioning as an [Fe-S]-dependent transcriptional repressor. We provide a review of the current literature combined with a bioinformatic assessment of bacterial Feo systems showing how they exhibit common features, as well as differences in organisation and composition which probably reflect variations in mechanisms employed and function.

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Debate regarding the co-existence of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in wounds remains contentious, with the dominant hypothesis describing a situation akin to niche partitioning, whereby both microorganisms are present but occupy distinct regions of the wound without interacting. In contrast, we hypothesised that these microorganisms do interact during early co-colonisation in a manner beneficial to both bacteria. We assessed competitive interaction between S. aureus and P. aeruginosa in biofilm cultured for 24-72 h and bacterial aggregates analogous to those observed in early (<24 h) biofilm formation, and interaction with human keratinocytes. We observed that S. aureus predominated in biofilm and non-attached bacterial aggregates, acting as a pioneer for the attachment of P. aeruginosa. We report for the first time that S. aureus mediates a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the attachment of P. aeruginosa to human keratinocytes, and that P. aeruginosa promotes an invasive phenotype in S. aureus. We show that co-infected keratinocytes exhibit an intermediate inflammatory response concurrent with impaired wound closure that is in keeping with a sustained proinflammatory response which allows for persistent microbial colonisation. These studies demonstrate that, contrary to the dominant hypothesis, interactions between S. aureus and P. aeruginosa may be an important factor for both colonisation and pathogenicity in the chronic infected wound.

Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus; GAS) is always of clinical significance in wounds where it can initiate infection, destroy skin grafts and persist as a biofilm. Manuka honey has broad spectrum antimicrobial activity and its use in the clinical setting is beginning to gain acceptance with the continuing emergence of antibiotic resistance and the inadequacy of established systemic therapies; novel inhibitors may affect clinical practice. In this study, the effect of manuka honey on S. pyogenes (M28) was investigated in vitro with planktonic and biofilm cultures using MIC, MBC, microscopy and aggregation efficiency. Bactericidal effects were found in both planktonic cultures and biofilms, although higher concentrations of manuka honey were needed to inhibit biofilms. Abrogation of adherence and intercellular aggregation was observed. Manuka honey permeated 24 h established biofilms of S. pyogenes, resulting in significant cell death and dissociation of cells from the biofilm. Sublethal concentrations of manuka honey effectively prevented the binding of S. pyogenes to the human tissue protein fibronectin, but did not inhibit binding to fibrinogen. The observed inhibition of fibronectin binding was confirmed by a reduction in the expression of genes encoding two major fibronectin-binding streptococcal surface proteins, Sof and SfbI. These findings indicate that manuka honey has potential in the topical treatment of wounds containing S. pyogenes. INTRODUCTIONStreptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus) colonizes the nasopharynx and skin of healthy individuals, forming part of the commensal microbiota. Under appropriate conditions, S. pyogenes can be transmitted to wounds and is especially problematic after surgery, following skin grafting and for military personal with traumatic or puncture wounds. Wounds provide a route of entry to the host and damaged tissues display a matrix of proteins including collagen, albumin, fibronectin and fibrinogen, which collectively provide a plethora of ligands to which opportunistic pathogens, including streptococci, adhere (Kubo et al., 2001). Surgical site infection accounts for approximately 25 % of all hospital-acquired infections and may result in the development of a non-healing or chronic wound (Werdin et al., 2009). Non-healing wounds are defined as wounds that have failed to proceed through the normal, orderly and timely reparative process that results in restoration of anatomical and functional integrity, within 3 months (Cooper, 2005;Guo & Dipietro, 2010). In the developed world, approximately 1-1.5 % of populations have non-healing wounds, and these account for 2-4 % of all health care expenses (Gottrup, 2008).Biofilms have been associated with persistent or chronic wound infections and are a major obstacle to healing (James et al., 2008;Rhoads et al., 2008). Streptococcus species readily form biofilms, by a process in which numerous cell-wall-anchored adhesins specifically attach to human tissue protein ligands and promote bacterial aggregation (Nobbs et ...

Resistance to antibiotics continues to rise and few new therapies are on the horizon. Honey has good antibacterial activity against numerous microorganisms of many different genera and no honey-resistant phenotypes have yet emerged. The mechanisms of antimicrobial activity are just beginning to be understood; however, it is apparent that these are diverse and often specific for certain groups or even species of bacteria. Manuka honey has been most thoroughly characterized and is commercially available as a topical medical treatment for wound infections. Furthermore, since most data are available for this honey, there is a considerable focus on it in this review. It is becoming evident that honeys are more than just bactericidal, as they impact on biofilm formation, quorum sensing and the expression of virulence factors. With this in mind, honey represents an attractive antimicrobial treatment that might have the potential to be used alongside current therapies as a prophylactic or to treat wound infection with multidrug-resistant bacteria in future.

The streptococcal antigen I/II (AgI/II)-family polypeptides are cell wall-anchored adhesins expressed by most indigenous oral streptococci. Proteins sharing 30–40% overall amino acid sequence similarities with AgI/II-family proteins are also expressed by Streptococcus pyogenes. The S. pyogenes M28_Spy1325 polypeptide (designated AspA) displays an AgI/II primary structure, with alanine-rich (A) and proline-rich (P) repeats flanking a V region that is projected distal from the cell. In this study it is shown that AspA from serotype M28 S. pyogenes, when expressed on surrogate host Lactococcus lactis, confers binding to immobilized salivary agglutinin gp-340. This binding was blocked by antibodies to the AspA-VP region. In contrast, the N-terminal region of AspA was deficient in binding fluid-phase gp-340, and L. lactis cells expressing AspA were not agglutinated by gp-340. Deletion of the aspA gene from two different M28 strains of S. pyogenes abrogated their abilities to form biofilms on saliva-coated surfaces. In each mutant strain, biofilm formation was restored by trans complementation of the aspA deletion. In addition, expression of AspA protein on the surface of L. lactis conferred biofilm-forming ability. Taken collectively, the results provide evidence that AspA is a biofilm-associated adhesin that may function in host colonization by S. pyogenes.

The presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cutaneous wounds is of clinical significance and can lead to persistent infections. Manuka honey has gained ground in clinical settings due to its effective therapeutic action and broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. In this study, the effect of manuka honey on P. aeruginosa was investigated using MIC, MBC, growth kinetics, confocal microscopy, atomic force microscopy and real-time PCR. A bactericidal mode of action for manuka honey against P. aeruginosa was deduced (12 %, w/v, MIC; 16 %, w/v, MBC) and confirmed by confocal and atomic force microscopy, which showed extensive cell lysis after 60 min exposure to inhibitory concentrations of manuka honey. The inability of honey-treated cells to form microcolonies was demonstrated and investigated using Q-PCR for three key microcolony-forming genes: algD, lasR and oprF. The expression of algD increased 16-fold whereas oprF expression decreased 10-fold following honey treatment; lasR expression remained unaltered. These findings confirm that manuka honey is effective at inducing cell lysis and identify two targets, at the genetic level, that might be involved in this process. INTRODUCTIONBurns are one of the most prevalent skin traumas in modern society, and subsequent infection is common. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been associated with burn infections for decades (McManus et al., 1985;Shankowsky et al., 1994; Tredget et al., 2004), and despite progress in treatment, infection remains the main cause of death amongst burn patients. Multidrug-resistant strains of P. aeruginosa have become commonplace due to their intrinsic resistance to antimicrobial agents (Strateva & Yordanov, 2009) and ability to acquire new antibiotic resistance mechanisms (Aloush et al., 2006). In addition to key immune defence mechanisms (Nikaido, 1994), P. aeruginosa possesses numerous virulence factors that also facilitate infection (Tredget et al., 2004). Once P. aeruginosa infections in burn wounds have established, they often become chronic, a state that is associated with the presence of bacterial biofilms (Bjarnsholt et al., 2008;James et al., 2008). Many currently used antimicrobials are ineffective against P. aeruginosa; therefore, novel therapeutic agents are sought for the successful management of wounds in burn patients.Honey is a natural product and for many centuries was held in high regard due to its antibacterial properties (Crane, 2001). Such effects have been observed against more than 80 bacterial species, including both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria, and multidrug-resistant pathogens. It is for this reason that the use of honey has seen a resurgence in modern wound care management (Molan, 1992a) (for an indepth review of this topic see Cooper et al., 2009). The inherent antibacterial properties of honey are partly conferred by sugars, which account for 80 % of its weight, resulting in a high osmolarity and low water activity (Molan, 1992a). Hydrogen peroxide has been identified as the main antimicrobial component of man...