People often discount evidence that contradicts their firmly held beliefs. However, little is known about the neural mechanisms that govern this behavior. We used neuroimaging to investigate the neural systems involved in maintaining belief in the face of counterevidence, presenting 40 liberals with arguments that contradicted their strongly held political and non-political views. Challenges to political beliefs produced increased activity in the default mode network—a set of interconnected structures associated with self-representation and disengagement from the external world. Trials with greater belief resistance showed increased response in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and decreased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex. We also found that participants who changed their minds more showed less BOLD signal in the insula and the amygdala when evaluating counterevidence. These results highlight the role of emotion in belief-change resistance and offer insight into the neural systems involved in belief maintenance, motivated reasoning, and related phenomena.

Although it is widely accepted that sleep must serve an essential biological function, little is known about molecules that underlie sleep regulation. Given that insomnia is a common sleep disorder that disrupts the ability to initiate and maintain restorative sleep, a better understanding of its molecular underpinning may provide crucial insights into sleep regulatory processes. Thus, we created a line of flies using laboratory selection that share traits with human insomnia. After 60 generations insomnia-like (ins-l) flies sleep 60 min a day, exhibit difficulty initiating sleep, difficulty maintaining sleep, and show evidence of daytime cognitive impairment. ins-l flies are also hyperactive and hyper responsive to environmental perturbations. In addition they have difficulty maintaining their balance, have elevated levels of dopamine, are short-lived and show increased levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids. While their core molecular clock remains intact, ins-l flies lose their ability to sleep when placed into constant darkness. Whole genome profiling identified genes that are modified in ins-l flies. Among those differentially expressed transcripts genes involved in metabolism, neuronal activity, and sensory perception constituted over-represented categories. We demonstrate that two of these genes are upregulated in human subjects following acute sleep deprivation. Together these data indicate that the ins-l flies are a useful tool that can be used to identify molecules important for sleep regulation and may provide insights into both the causes and long-term consequences of insomnia.

Community violence exposure is a common stressor, known to compromise youth cognitive and emotional development. In a diverse, urban sample of 22 adolescents, participants reported on community violence exposure (witnessing a beating or illegal drug use, hearing gun shots, or other forms of community violence) in early adolescence (average age 12.99), and underwent a neuroimaging scan 3-5 years later (average age 16.92). Community violence exposure in early adolescence predicted smaller manually traced left and right hippocampal and amygdala volumes in a model controlling for age, gender, and concurrent community violence exposure, measured in late adolescence. Community violence continued to predict hippocampus (but not amygdala) volumes after we also controlled for family aggression exposure in early adolescence. Community violence exposure was also associated with stronger resting state connectivity between the right hippocampus (using the manually traced structure as a seed region) and bilateral frontotemporal regions including the superior temporal gyrus and insula. These resting state connectivity results held after controlling for concurrent community violence exposure, SES, and family aggression. Although this is the first study focusing on community violence in conjunction with brain structure and function, these results dovetail with other research linking childhood adversity with smaller subcortical volumes in adolescence and adulthood, and with altered frontolimbic resting state connectivity. Our findings suggest that even community-level exposure to neighborhood violence can have detectable neural correlates in adolescents.

Drawing from a common lexicon of semantic units, humans fashion narratives whose meaning transcends that of their individual utterances. However, while brain regions that represent lower-level semantic units, such as words and sentences, have been identified, questions remain about the neural representation of narrative comprehension, which involves inferring cumulative meaning. To address these questions, we exposed English, Mandarin and Farsi native speakers to native language translations of the same stories during fMRI scanning. Using a new technique in natural language processing, we calculated the distributed representations of these stories (capturing the meaning of the stories in high-dimensional semantic space), and demonstrate that using these representations we can identify the specific story a participant was reading from the neural data. Notably, this was possible even when the distributed representations were calculated using stories in a different language than the participant was reading.Relying on over 44 billion classifications, our results reveal that identification relied on a collection of brain regions most prominently located in the default mode network.These results demonstrate that neuro-semantic encoding of narratives happens at levels higher than individual semantic units and that this encoding is systematic across both individuals and languages. NEURO-SEMANTIC REPRESENTATION OF STORIES 3 Decoding the Neural Representation of Story Meanings across LanguagesOne of the defining characteristics of human language is its capacity for semantic extensibility. Drawing from a common lexicon of morphemes and words, humans generate and comprehend sophisticated, higher-level utterances that transcend the sum of their individual units. This is perhaps best exemplified in stories, in which sequences of events invite inferences about the intentions and motivations of characters, about cause and effect, and about theme and message. The kind of meaning that emerges over time as one listens to a story is not easily captured by analysis at the word level alone.Further, a necessary condition for generating higher-level semantic constructs is that speakers of the same language infer similar meanings from expressions of both lower and higher level semantic units. For example, it can be assumed that when speakers of the same language listen to stories, the perceived meanings of these stories have much in NEURO-SEMANTIC REPRESENTATION OF STORIES 4In this work, our aim is to move beyond word-level semantics to investigate neuro-semantic representations at the story-level across three different languages.Specifically, we set out to determine if there are systematic patterns in the neuro-semantic representations of stories beyond those corresponding to word-level stimuli. Our aim is motivated by the long-standing understanding that discourse representations are different from the sum of all of their lexical or clausal parts. Most psycholinguistic models of discourse processing are concerned with the con...

Episodic memory retrieval involves the coordinated interaction of several cognitive processing stages such as mental search, access to a memory store, associative re-encoding, and post-retrieval monitoring. The neural response during memory retrieval is an integration of signals from multiple regions that may subserve supportive cognitive control, attention, sensory association, encoding, or working memory functions. It is particularly challenging to dissociate contributions of these distinct components to brain responses in regions such as the hippocampus, which lies at the interface between overlapping memory encoding and retrieval, and “default” networks. In the present study, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and measures of memory performance were used to differentiate brain responses to memory search from subcomponents of episodic memory retrieval associated with successful recall. During the attempted retrieval of both poorly and strongly remembered word pair associates, the hemodynamic response was negatively deflected below baseline in anterior hippocampus and regions of the default network. Activations in anterior hippocampus were functionally distinct from those in posterior hippocampus and negatively correlated with response times. Thus, relative to the pre-stimulus period, the hippocampus shows reduced activity during intensive engagement in episodic memory search. Such deactivation was most salient during trials that engaged only pre-retrieval search processes in the absence of successful recollection or post-retrieval processing. Implications for interpretation of hippocampal fMRI responses during retrieval are discussed. A model is presented to interpret such activations as representing modulation of encoding-related activity, rather than retrieval-related activity. Engagement in intensive mental search may reduce neural and attentional resources that are otherwise tonically devoted to encoding an individual’s stream of experience into episodic memory.

Narratives are an important component of culture and play a central role in transmitting social values. Little is known, however, about how the brain of a listener/reader processes narratives. A receiver's response to narration is influenced by the narrator's framing and appeal to values. Narratives that appeal to "protected values," including core personal, national, or religious values, may be particularly effective at influencing receivers. Protected values resist compromise and are tied with identity, affective value, moral decision-making, and other aspects of social cognition. Here, we investigated the neural mechanisms underlying reactions to protected values in narratives. During fMRI scanning, we presented 78 American, Chinese, and Iranian participants with real-life stories distilled from a corpus of over 20 million weblogs. Reading these stories engaged the posterior medial, medial prefrontal, and temporo-parietal cortices. When participants believed that the protagonist was appealing to a protected value, signal in these regions was increased compared with when no protected value was perceived, possibly reflecting the intensive and iterative search required to process this material. The effect strength also varied across groups, potentially reflecting cultural differences in the degree of concern for protected values.

Using longitudinal data from 21 adolescents, we assessed family aggression (via mother, father, and youth report) in early adolescence, externalizing behavior in mid-adolescence, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data in late adolescence. Amygdalae were manually traced, and used as seed regions for resting state analyses. Both family aggression and subsequent externalizing behavior predicted larger right amygdala volumes and stronger amygdala-frontolimbic/ salience network connectivity and weaker amygdala-posterior cingulate connectivity. Externalizing behavior in midadolescence mediated associations between family aggression in early adolescence and resting state connectivity between the amygdala and the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and posterior cingulate cortex in late adolescence. Family adversity and adolescent behavior problems may share common neural correlates.

Retrieval is often subdivided into recollection and familiarity. Memory-strength and reaction time (RT) differ for each, complicating fMRI studies of these processes. Recollection leads to greater activity in the hippocampus and default network (DN). Increased DN activity with recollection is thought to reflect self-referential processes, but prior studies have not accounted for varying RT, which modulates DN activity and is consistently faster for recollection than familiarity. This study examined the influence of RT and memory-strength on recollection and familiarity activity. The results show the hippocampus functionally dissociated from DN during retrieval. DN was generally influenced by RT and signal was suppressed when subjects were task-engaged in recollection or familiarity; suppression was greater for slower trials of either type. The hippocampus showed a positive deflection of fMRI activity only for recollection trials; activation was greater for slower recollection trials, but RT did not influence hippocampal activity during familiarity trials.