For the first time, we analyzed the direct kinetic effects of concrete and rubber flooring on the soles of live dairy cows' claws while standing and walking. Ten adult dairy cows were equipped with foil-based pressure sensors (HoofSystem, Tekscan Inc., Boston, MA) under their left hind leg using a leather claw shoe. These sensors captured parameters of pressure distribution and vertical ground reaction forces while the cows walked on the 2 tested flooring types. The mean pressure was 15.1 to 21.1% lower on rubber flooring compared with concrete; mean pressure values (± standard deviation) were 36.32 ± 7.77 N/cm 2 for static measures and 57.33 ± 11.77 N/cm 2 for dynamic measures. We observed an even more obvious relief on rubber flooring in the maximum pressure loads, which were 30.1 to 32.7% lower on rubber flooring compared with concrete; mean pressure values (± standard deviation) were 98.79 ± 14.49 N/cm 2 for static measures and 150.45 ± 20.87 N/ cm 2 for dynamic measures). The force-time curves of the dynamic measures essentially showed biphasic curve progression, with local peaks at 29 and 79% of the stance phase. However, we found considerable differences in curve progression between individuals and between the lateral and medial claws, which may be verified in further investigations with more animals. The study showed a noticeable reduction in mechanical load during standing and walking on rubber flooring compared with concrete.

It is possible to noninvasively apply both Autoscoping and Scientific Rotoscoping for gait analysis of the equine phalanges with high precision. The summary is available in Chinese - see supporting information.

Lameness severely impairs cattle's locomotion, and it is among the most important threats to animal welfare, performance, and productivity in the modern dairy industry. However, insight into the pathological alterations of claw biomechanics leading to lameness and an understanding of the biomechanics behind development of claw lesions causing lameness are limited. Biplane high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography is a new approach for the analysis of skeletal motion. Biplane high-speed videos in combination with bone scans can be used for 3-dimensional (3D) animations of bones moving in 3D space. The gold standard, marker-based animation, requires implantation of radio-opaque markers into bones, which impairs the practicability for lameness research in live animals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the comparative accuracy of 2 noninvasive, markerless animation techniques (semi-automatic and manual) in 3D animation of the bovine distal limb. Tantalum markers were implanted into each of the distal, middle, and proximal phalanges of 5 isolated bovine distal forelimbs, and biplane high-speed x-ray videos of each limb were recorded to capture the simulation of one step. The limbs were scanned by computed tomography to create bone models of the 6 digital bones, and 3D animation of the bones' movements were subsequently reconstructed using the marker-based, the semi-automatic, and the manual animation techniques. Manual animation translational bias and precision varied from 0.63 ± 0.26 mm to 0.80 ± 0.49 mm, and rotational bias and precision ranged from 2.41 ± 1.43° to 6.75 ± 4.67°. Semi-automatic translational values for bias and precision ranged from 1.26 ± 1.28 mm to 2.75 ± 2.17 mm, and rotational values varied from 3.81 ± 2.78° to 11.7 ± 8.11°. In our study, we demonstrated the successful application of biplane high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography to gait analysis of bovine distal limb. Using the manual animation technique, kinematics can be measured with sub-millimeter accuracy without the need for invasive marker implantation.

BackgroundMechanical interactions between hard floorings and the sole of bovine claws can be reasonable to cause traumatic claw lesions. In this ex vivo study, the direct kinetic impact of concrete and three types of rubber mats on the sole of dairy cattle claws was analyzed. In order to apply uniform loads, isolated distal hind limbs of adult Holstein Friesian dairy cows were functionally trimmed according to the Dutch method and attached to a load applicator. Kinetic data were recorded using a thin, foil-based pressure measurement system (Hoof™ System, Tekscan®).ResultsOn concrete, the load distribution between the lateral and medial claw was less balanced than on the rubber floorings. The loaded area was significantly smaller on concrete (32.2 cm2) compared to all rubber mats (48.3–58.0 cm2). Average pressures (Pav) and maximum pressures (Pmax) were significantly higher on concrete (Pav 44.7 N/cm2; Pmax 130.3 N/cm2) compared to the rubber floorings (Pav 24.9–29.7 N/cm2; Pmax 71.9–87.2 N/cm2). Pressure peaks occurred mainly in plantar and abaxial parts of the lateral claw and in apical and plantar regions of the medial claw. Load distribution displayed a widely unloaded slope region, but considering the pressure distribution under the claw, none of the zones showed a generally lower pressure exposure.ConclusionsAltogether, rubber floorings lead to a significant mechanical relief of the sole compared to concrete. Furthermore, relevant differences between the tested rubber mats could be determined. Therefore the used system may be applied to compare further flooring types.

This study had 2 objectives. The first objective was to investigate motion patterns and the range of motion of the bovine proximal and distal interphalangeal joints on concrete during the stance phase. The second objective was to determine whether the range of motion and the locomotive stability of the interphalangeal joints differ on concrete and 3 different commercially available rubber mats (Karera, Kura, and Pedikura; Kraiburg Elastik GmbH & Co. KG, Tittmoning, Germany). Biplane high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography (72 ± 2.5 kV and 112.5 ± 12.5 mA, refresh rate 500 frames per second, shutter 0.5 ms) was applied to record 1 stance phase of the right forelimb of 2 Holstein Friesian heifers (15 mo old, 440 ± 10 kg; ± standard deviation) on each flooring. Three-dimensional digital animations were generated with a marker-supported manual animation technique based on the recordings and computer tomographic bone models. The mean maximum range of motion of each of the 4 interphalangeal joints in terms of flexion/extension, abduction/ adduction, and internal/external rotation were calculated as well as the mean number of local extrema as a measure of stability during the stance phase. The main degree of freedom in all interphalangeal joints was flexion and extension with a range of motion of 17.7 to 25.9°. The second largest degree of freedom differed between abduction/adduction (7.7-10.0°) and internal/external rotation (6.5-9.6°) depending on the joint. Remarkably, although smaller, these extrasagittal directions still contribute to the overall motion to a considerable degree. In addition, the interphalangeal joints of the lateral digit showed a tendency to move less during the stance phase than their medial counterparts. Comparing concrete to the rubber mats, the interphalangeal joints tend to have to cover a larger range of motion on concrete with the exception of the distal interphalangeal joint in terms of flexion/extension. The unyielding surface of concrete seems to force the flexible parts of the animal-ground-interaction into extended motion. Furthermore, there tends to be more instability in all 3 degrees of freedom in all 4 joints on concrete, implying a greater effort of the soft tissues to achieve a balanced motion. Detailed biomechanical research contributes to the development of adequate flooring systems by evaluating the mechanical strain on claws and joints and working toward lameness prevention and thus animal welfare.

Mechanical overburdening is a major risk factor that provokes non-infectious claw diseases. Moreover, lameness-causing lesions often remain undetected and untreated. Therefore, prevention of claw tissue overburdening is of interest, especially by analyzing harmful effects within dairy cows’ housing environment. However, objective “on-cow” methods for bovine gait analysis are underdeveloped. The purpose of the study was to apply an innovative mobile pressure sensor system attached at the claws to perform pedobarometric gait analysis. A further goal was the supplementation with accelerative data, generated simultaneously by use of two inertial measurement units (IMUs), attached at metatarsal level. IMU data were analyzed with an automatic step detection algorithm. Gait analysis was performed in ten dairy cows, walking and trotting on concrete flooring and rubber mats. In addition to the basic applicability of the sensor systems and with the aid of the automatic step detection algorithm for gait analysis in cows, we were able to determine the impact of the gait and flooring type on kinematic and kinetic parameters. For pressure sensor output, concrete was associated with significantly (p < 0.001) higher maximum and average pressure values and a significantly smaller contact area, compared to rubber mats. In contrast to walking, trotting led to a significantly higher force, especially under the medial claw. Further, IMU-derived parameters were significantly influenced by the gait. The described sensor systems are useful tools for detailed gait analysis in dairy cows. They allow the investigation of factors which may affect claw health negatively.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel Hohe Druckbelastungen der Rinderklauen führen regelmäßig zu Schäden an den Klauengeweben und nachfolgend zu therapiebedürftigen Rusterholz’schen Sohlengeschwüren (RSG). Ein komplizierter Verlauf der RSG kann durch fachgerechte Klauenpflege verhindert werden. In dieser Studie wurde untersucht, wie sich ein an der Außenklaue der Hintergliedmaße vorgenommener stufenloser und keilförmiger Entlastungsschnitt vom Ballen bis zur Sohlenspitze auf die Druckverteilung unter den Klauen der Beckengliedmaße auswirkt und ob eine Veränderung der Druckverteilung zur Lederhautentlastung im Bereich des Defekts führt. Material und Methode Neunzehn isolierte distale Rindergliedmaßen vom Schlachthof (A: unbearbeiteter Zustand) wurden schrittweise bearbeitet (B: funktionelle Klauenpflege, Schritt 1–3; C: Erweiterung der Hohlkehlung und kreisrunde Bohrung zur Simulation eines RSG an der Außenklaue; D: keilförmiger Entlastungsschnitt vom Ballen bis zur Hälfte der Sohlenfläche in Richtung Sohlenspitze; E: keilförmige Erweiterung des Entlastungsschnittes über die gesamte Sohlenfläche bis kurz vor die Sohlenspitze). Zwischen den einzelnen Bearbeitungsschritten wurden die Gliedmaßen mit 200 kg belastet. Die Druckverteilung unter den Klauen wurde mit Drucksensoren gemessen. Außerdem wurden die Klauen auf einer Glasplatte positioniert, was die Beurteilung der Vorwölbung der Lederhaut bzw. des Fettpolsters anhand des Bohrlochs ermöglichte. Ergebnisse In Zustand A lasteten durchschnittlich 63 %, bei Zustand E 30 % der gesamten Kraft auf der Außenklaue. Mit zunehmender Bearbeitung der Klauen verlagerten sich die Druckmaxima vom Ballen- in den Sohlenspitzenbereich. Die relative Belastungsfläche der Innenklaue nahm mit fortschreitender Bearbeitung um bis zu 18,4 % zu. In Zustand E ergab sich im Vergleich zu C eine signifikante Reduzierung der Lederhautvorwölbung im Bereich des künstlichen Sohlendefekts. Schlussfolgerung Der keilförmige Entlastungsschnitt (E) führte an den isolierten Rindergliedmaßen zu einer Außenklauen- und Ballenentlastung und stellt eine Methode zur Defekt- und Lederhautentlastung dar. Klinische Relevanz Der Entlastungsschnitt könnte auch am lebenden Tier eine Druckentlastung der Außenklaue bewirken und so den Krankheitsverlauf von RSG positiv beeinflussen.

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