Abstract. Larvae of Hermetia illucens feed on different types of decomposing organic matter and their development depends on the quality and quantity of food ingested. In this study the effect of three artificial diets was analyzed, namely hen feed, meat meal and a mixture of these two diets. The effects of diet on ovarian development, size, mortality, duration of the larval and pupal stages and sex ratio were studied. Results indicate that the meat meal diet was the worst of the three diets in terms of percentage mortality and duration of the larval and pupal stages. We conclude that food ingested by the black soldier fly larvae determines both the physiological and morphological development of the adults.

CladisticsCladistics F o r P e e r R e v i e w TITLE First phylogeny of predatory hoverflies (Diptera, Syrphidae, Syrphinae) using mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S rRNA genes: conflict and congruence with the current tribal classification. AUTHORS ABSTRACTThe family Syrphidae (Diptera) is traditionally divided into three subfamilies. The aim of this study was to address the monophyly of the tribes within the subfamily Syrphinae (virtually all with predaceous habits), as well as the phylogenetic placement of particular genera using molecular characters. Sequence data from the mitochondrial protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear 28S ribosomal RNA gene of ninety eight Syrphinae taxa were analysed using optimization alignment to explore phylogenetic relationships among included taxa. Volucella pellucens was used as outgroup, and representatives of the tribe Pipizini (Eristalinae), with similar larval feeding mode, were also included. Congruence of our results with current tribal classification of Syrphinae is discussed. Our results include the tribe Toxomerini resolved as monophyletic but placed in a clade with genera Ocyptamus and Eosalpingogaster. Some genera traditionally placed into Syrphini were resolved outside of this tribe, as sister groups to other tribes or genera. The tribe Bacchini was resolved into several different clades. We recovered Paragini as a monophyletic group, and sister-group of the genus Allobaccha. The present results highlight the need of a reclassification of Syrphinae.

The taxonomic rank and phylogenetic relationships of the pipizine flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae: Pipizini) were estimated based on DNA sequence data from three gene regions (COI, 28S and 18S) and 111 adult morphological characters. Pipizini has been treated as a member of the subfamily Eristalinae based on diagnostic adult morphological characteristics, while the larval feeding mode and morphology is shared with members of the subfamily Syrphinae. We analysed each dataset, both separately and combined, in a total evidence approach under maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. To evaluate the influence of different alignment strategies of rDNA 28S and 18S genes on the resulting topologies, we compared the topologies inferred from a multiple alignment using fast Fourier transform (MAFFT) program with those topologies resulting from aligning the secondary structure of these rDNA genes. Total evidence analyses resolved pipizines as a sister group of the subfamily Syrphinae. Although the structural alignment and the MAFFT alignment differed in the inferred relationships of some clades and taxa, there was congruence in the placement of pipizines. The homogeneous morphology of the Pipizini clade in combination with their unique combination of characters among the Syrphidae suggest a change of rank to subfamily. Thus, we propose to divide Syrphidae into four subfamilies, including the subfamily Pipizinae stat. rev.

The annual activity and spatial distribution of Muscidae and Calliphoridae were investigated in a holm-oak ('dehesa') ecosystem in western Spain over two years in pasture and woodland habitats, using wind-orientated traps baited with a mixture of fresh cattle faeces, liver and sodium sulphide solution. Lucilia sericata (Meigen) was always the dominant species and, with Chrysomya albiceps (Weidemann), Hydrotaea ignava (Harris), Muscina levida (Harris) and Muscina prolapsa (Harris), was more abundant during the second than the first year. By contrast, Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, Calliphora vomitoria (L.), Hydrotaea armipes (Fallén), Hydrotaea penicillata (Rondani) and Hydrotaea dentipes (Fabricius) were more numerous during the first than the second year of the study. In summer, the Diptera sampled were significantly more abundant in a wooded than a pasture area. However, in autumn, while H. penicillata remained significantly more abundant in woodland, L. sericata became more abundant in the pasture, whereas C. vicina was captured in open and wooded areas in similar proportions. During winter and spring the populations sampled were relatively small. The changing patterns of abundance are discussed in relation to differences in climate within and between years.

Background The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is the most promising insect candidate for nutrient-recycling through bioconversion of organic waste into biomass, thereby improving sustainability of protein supplies for animal feed and facilitating transition to a circular economy. Contrary to conventional livestock, genetic resources of farmed insects remain poorly characterised. We present the first comprehensive population genetic characterisation of H. illucens. Based on 15 novel microsatellite markers, we genotyped and analysed 2862 individuals from 150 wild and captive populations originating from 57 countries on seven subcontinents. Results We identified 16 well-distinguished genetic clusters indicating substantial global population structure. The data revealed genetic hotspots in central South America and successive northwards range expansions within the indigenous ranges of the Americas. Colonisations and naturalisations of largely unique genetic profiles occurred on all non-native continents, either preceded by demographically independent founder events from various single sources or involving admixture scenarios. A decisive primarily admixed Polynesian bridgehead population serially colonised the entire Australasian region and its secondarily admixed descendants successively mediated invasions into Africa and Europe. Conversely, captive populations from several continents traced back to a single North American origin and exhibit considerably reduced genetic diversity, although some farmed strains carry distinct genetic signatures. We highlight genetic footprints characteristic of progressing domestication due to increasing socio-economic importance of H. illucens, and ongoing introgression between domesticated strains globally traded for large-scale farming and wild populations in some regions. Conclusions We document the dynamic population genetic history of a cosmopolitan dipteran of South American origin shaped by striking geographic patterns. These reflect both ancient dispersal routes, and stochastic and heterogeneous anthropogenic introductions during the last century leading to pronounced diversification of worldwide structure of H. illucens. Upon the recent advent of its agronomic commercialisation, however, current human-mediated translocations of the black soldier fly largely involve genetically highly uniform domesticated strains, which meanwhile threaten the genetic integrity of differentiated unique local resources through introgression. Our in-depth reconstruction of the contemporary and historical demographic trajectories of H. illucens emphasises benchmarking potential for applied future research on this emerging model of the prospering insect-livestock sector.

The large volume of organic wastes and by-products produced every year usually generates environmental problems, such as water, air and soil contamination and it can be also a focus for pathogen dispersion. Sustainable waste management strategies should be developed, that can favour the value of the organic waste instead of its disposal. A sustainable strategy would be the use of the organic waste as substrate for intensive production of insect biomass. The insects associated with manure and organic waste can play a key role for the sustainable valorisation of organic waste streams as high add value products as they could be used as feed. This review is an overview of the research related with intensive insect farming of saprophagous dipteran species (flies) on manure and other organic wastes and the by-products obtained after the process. Using dipterans as recyclers of waste means that the mass-production systems of these organisms have to be efficient and competitive with other recycling systems. This review describes the possibilities of the dipterans to become active agents in waste management systems and, at the same time, an important resource of protein for feed and the main aspects and bottlenecks that have to be improved in order to achieve competitive insect farming.

A revision of the species and families of sarcosaprophagous flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Muscidae, Fanniidae, Drosophilidae, Phoridae, Piophilidae and Stratiomyidae) suitable for forensic purposes in the Iberian Peninsula is presented. Morphological characteristics that allow the accurate identification of third instars of the species present in the Iberian Peninsula are described and presented in the form of a diagnostic key. For larval Calliphoridae, characteristics such as the spines of the body segments were useful for the genus Calliphora whereas features of the anal segment and the cephalopharyngeal skeleton were useful for larvae of Lucilia. Identification of three Chrysominae species present in the Iberian Peninsula is included. For larval Sarcophagidae, characters such as the arrangement and shape of spiracular openings, structures of the anal segment and the cephalopharyngeal skeleton were used for the first time. A new record of Sarcophaga cultellata Pandellé, from a human corpse, is also included as well as recent incursions into the European cadaveric entomofauna such as Synthesiomyia nudiseta (van der Wulp) and Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus). This work provides useful new information that could be applied to forensic investigations in the Iberian Peninsula and in southern Europe.

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