Purpose In spite of the availability of metrics for measuring social impact (SI), it can be difficult for organisations to select tools that fit their precise needs. To address this challenge, this study conducts a systematic literature review by using legitimacy theory as a point of departure. It examines tools that capture three dimensions of sustainability – social, economic and environmental (SEE) – and firm size. Design/methodology/approach Top four journal databases in the social sciences from the FT50 review were searched to identify articles published in peer-reviewed journals in the 2009-2019 period, using keywords to conceptualise the construct. For comprehensive assessment, this study adopted a method that requires the logic synthesis of concepts and evidence emerging from the literature to address the research aim. Findings The results show that most of the articles developed tools or frameworks to measure SI based on the triple bottom line of sustainability – SEE – and firm size. However, there is insufficient evidence of their integration into practice. Research limitations/implications This work contributes to the legitimisation of social enterprises (SEs) by using validated tools and frameworks to develop practical suggestions for SI measurement (SIM). Originality/value As legitimacy is an important rationale for SIM, this study adds value through the development of a suitability framework. The framework enables SEs to identify the most appropriate tool for their purpose and size to establish legitimacy through impact measurement and reporting.

The current entrepreneurship research has primarily focused on external environmental factors that influence enterprise development in developed economies, whilst studies from developing economies are lagging. Yet, evidence from the World Bank and Global Entrepreneurship Index suggest that entrepreneurship practice in developing economies has peaked. Using semistructured interview data from twenty entrepreneurs in The Gambia, we examined their motivations for entrepreneurship, the market opportunities and challenges hindering enterprise growth. We found the factors influencing motivation to be individual (necessity, poverty, experience, job creation, personal knowledge and experience) and contextual (opportunity recognition, ethnic and religious norms). Interestingly, three forms of opportunities were identified: entrepreneurial networks, competitive market and discovery. Nonetheless, the entrepreneurs faced individual challenges-insufficient finance and unskilled staff-and contextual limitations such as political change, limited government reforms, high taxes, high business cost, and market uncertainty. We offer critical insights into individual and contextual motivations for entrepreneurship, extending the current discourse. In addition, we expose specific dynamic market influences for enterprise development in developing economies.

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Social enterprises (SEs) contribute significantly to the UK economy. Yet, their collective contributions are a hidden feat. This paper presents the development, scale and scope of these enterprises, followed by a guide to inform opportunities for future research. This study is important because it presents a critical insight into the contribution of SEs from a market with the world's first largest social investment wholesaler. This insight will improve systems and models designed to improve operations and performance of these organisations.

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PurposeUsing Gibson and Tarrant's (2010) resilience triangle model, this study explores how small northwest Himalayan organisations respond to contextual challenges and opportunities and embed sustainability strategies in the organisations' operational values.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative exploratory design through individual and group interviews with owner-managers and employees was held in five small northwest Himalayan organisations.FindingsThe findings reveal multiple contextual challenges facing small organisations in northwest Himalayas, including ecological conditions, remoteness, underdeveloped infrastructure and human competencies. The investigated organisations respond to these challenges through reactive and innovation-based services like eco-tourism, conservation and educational initiatives. The organisations engage communities through participatory and educational activities. Owner-managers adjust the respective vision and mission statements, train employees on sustainability values and lobby the government on policy changes to embed sustainability strategies. Some organisations invest in resources and capabilities and others in process capabilities.Practical implicationsSmall organisations can improve how the organisations predict contextual issues by developing the organisations' process capabilities, specifically by creating practical tools with parameters relevant to ecological conditions. These organisations can set the tools through participatory actions with the broader communities to ensure the (un)intended consequences of environmental issues are considered. Furthermore, improvements in process and human capabilities will provide new approaches to raising business opportunities, especially in post-pandemic business environments.Originality/valueThis study develops a framework that enhances the understanding of how process capabilities, leadership, people and knowledge capabilities are critical to developing and embedding sustainability strategies in small organisations.

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