Mucosal surfaces provide first-line defense against microbial invasion through their complex secretions. The antimicrobial activities of proteins in these secretions have been well delineated, but the contributions of lipids to mucosal defense have not been defined. We found that normal human nasal fluid contains all major lipid classes (in micrograms per milliliter), as well as lipoproteins and apolipoprotein A-I. The predominant less polar lipids were myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acid, cholesterol, and cholesteryl palmitate, cholesteryl linoleate, and cholesteryl arachidonate. Normal human bronchioepithelial cell secretions exhibited a similar lipid composition. Removal of less-polar lipids significantly decreased the inherent antibacterial activity of nasal fluid against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which was in part restored after replenishing the lipids. Furthermore, lipids extracted from nasal fluid exerted direct antibacterial activity in synergism with the antimicrobial human neutrophil peptide HNP-2 and liposomal formulations of cholesteryl linoleate and cholesteryl arachidonate were active against P. aeruginosa at physiological concentrations as found in nasal fluid and exerted inhibitory activity against other Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. These data suggest that host-derived lipids contribute to mucosal defense. The emerging concept of host-derived antimicrobial lipids unveils novel roads to a better understanding of the immunology of infectious diseases.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. PPARγ, a ligand activated transcription factor, has important anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative functions and it has been associated with diseases including diabetes, scarring and atherosclerosis among others. PPARγ is expressed in most bone marrow derived cells and influences their function. PPARγ ligands can stimulate human B cell differentiation and promote antibody production. A knowledge gap is that the role of PPARγ in B cells under physiological conditions is not known. We developed a new B cell-specific PPARγ (B-PPARγ) knockout mouse and explored the role of PPARγ during both the primary and secondary immune response. Here, we show that PPARγ deficiency in B cells decreases germinal center B cells and plasma cell development as well as the levels of circulating antigen-specific antibodies during a primary challenge. Inability to generate germinal center B cells and plasma cells is correlated to decreased MHC class II expression and decreased Bcl-6 and Blimp-1 levels. Furthermore, B-PPARγ-deficient mice have an impaired memory response, characterized by low titers of antigen-specific antibodies and low numbers of antigen-experienced antibody-secreting cells. However, B-PPARγ-deficient mice have no differences in B cell population distribution within neither primary nor secondary lymphoid organs during development. This is the first report to show under physiological conditions that PPARγ expression in B cells is required for an efficient B cell-mediated immune response as it regulates B cell differentiation and antibody production.
CD23+CD21highCD1dhigh B cells (Bin cells) accumulate in the LNs draining inflamed joints of the TNFα transgenic (TNFtg) mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis, and are primarily involved in the significant histological and functional LN alterations that accompany disease exacerbation in this strain. Here we investigate the origin and function of Bin cells. We show that adoptively transferred GFP+ sorted mature follicular B (FoB) cells home preferentially to inflamed LNs of TNFtg mice where they rapidly differentiate into Bin cells, with a close correlation with the endogenous Bin fraction. Bin cells are also induced in wild-type (WT) LNs after immunization with T-dependent antigens, and display a germinal center phenotype at higher rates compared to FoB cells. Furthermore, we show that Bin cells can capture and process antigen immune complexes in a CD21-dependent manner more efficiently than FoB cells, and express higher levels of MHCII and costimulatory antigens CD80 and CD86. We propose that Bin cells are a previously unrecognized inflammation-induced B cell population with increased antigen capture and activation potential, which may facilitate normal immune responses but may contribute to autoimmunity when chronic inflammation causes their accumulation and persistence in affected LNs.
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