Study Design: Narrative Review Objective: To review and highlight the historical and recent advances of imaging in spine surgery and to discuss current applications and future directions Methods: A PubMed review of the current literature was performed on all relevant articles that examined historical and recent imaging techniques used in spine surgery. Studies were examined for their thoroughness in description of various modalities and applications in current and future management. Results: We reviewed 97 articles that discussed past, present, and future applications for imaging in spine surgery. Although most historical approaches relied heavily upon basic radiography, more recent advances have begun to expand upon advanced modalities, including the integration of more sophisticated equipment and artificial intelligence. Conclusion: Since the days of conventional radiography, various modalities have emerged and become integral components of the spinal surgeon's diagnostic armamentarium. As such, it behooves the practitioner to remain informed on the current trends and potential developments in spinal imaging, as rapid adoption and interpretation of new techniques may make significant differences in patient management and outcomes. Future directions will likely become increasingly sophisticated as the implementation of machine learning, and artificial intelligence has become more commonplace in clinical practice.
Since 2018 and currently in 2019, the United States and Canada experienced a rapidly spreading measles virus outbreak. The developing outbreak may be due to a lack of vaccination, an inadequate dosage of measles (MMR) vaccine, clusters of intentionally under-vaccinated children, imported measles from global travel, and from those who are immunocompromised or have other life-threatening diseases. The infection originated mainly from travelers who acquired measles abroad and has thus led to a major outbreak and health concern not only in the United States and Canada but also in other parts of the world. According to World Health Organization, from January 2019 through September 2019, 1234 cases of measles have been reported in the United States and 91 reported cases in Canada, while in 2018, 372 and 28 cases were reported in the United States and Canada, respectively. A potential driving factor to the increased cases maybe because fewer children have been vaccinated over the last number of years in both countries. This article is a narrative review of cases discussing the measles outbreak among partially vaccinated and unvaccinated children and adults in the United States and Canada in 2018 and 2019.
This study was carried out on the Caribbean Island of Anguilla for the purpose of analyzing surveillance data related to the epidemiology of HIV infection in Anguilla from 1988 to 2011. We retrieved data from the National AIDS Programme office for research purpose. Data on HIV/AIDS in Anguilla were retrieved from 1988 to 2011 and analyzed with particular emphasis on the year 2011. The retrieved data provided key information on new cases, deaths, and treatment of existing cases. Result analysis shows that by December 31, 2011, the cumulative number of all HIV cases diagnosed since the surveillance started in 1988 was 42. Males accounted for 23 (54.8%), while females accounted for 19 (45.2%) of the diagnosed cases. There were 17 cases comprising 12 males (70.5%) and 5 females (29.5%), HIV-related deaths within the same period. No cases of AIDS were reported in the study period. The year with the highest number of HIV diagnosis was 1996, with 7 confirmed new cases. HIV prevalence in Anguilla is estimated to be 0.19%. The number of tests conducted in 2008 holds steadfast as the highest in the 4 consecutive years from 2008 to 2011. There were 9 clients that received treatment and care from the Clinical Care Coordinator within the period under review. Data provided in this study shows a gradual decline in the incidence of HIV infection in Anguilla since it was first diagnosed in 1988. This is attributable to public awareness, surveillance, and access to antiretroviral treatment (ARVT).
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