Summary• Previous reports of sequences of Sebacinales (basal Hymenomycetes) from ericoid mycorrhizas raised the question as to whether Sebacinales are common mycorrhizal associates of Ericaceae, which are usually considered to associate with ascomycetes.• Here, we sampled 239 mycorrhizas from 36 ericoid mycorrhizal species across the world (Vaccinioideae and Ericoideae) and 361 mycorrhizas from four species of basal Ericaceae lineages (Arbutoideae and Monotropoideae) that do not form ericoid mycorrhizas, but ectendomycorrhizas. Sebacinales were detected using sebacinoidspecific primers for nuclear 28S ribosomal DNA, and some samples were investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM).• Diverging Sebacinales sequences were recovered from 76 ericoid mycorrhizas, all belonging to Sebacinales clade B. Indeed, some intracellular hyphal coils had ultrastructural TEM features expected for Sebacinales, and occurred in living cells. Sebacinales belonging to clade A were found on 13 investigated roots of the basal Ericaceae, and TEM revealed typical ectendomycorrhizal structures.• Basal Ericaceae lineages thus form ectendomycorrhizas with clade A Sebacinales, a clade that also harbours ectomycorrhizal fungi. This further supports the proposition that Ericaceae ectendomycorrhizas involve ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa. When ericoid mycorrhizas evolved secondarily in Ericaceae, a shift of mycobionts occurred to ascomycetes and clade B Sebacinales, hitherto not described as ericoid mycorrhizal fungi.

Summary• Cavendishia nobilis var . capitata is an endemic member of the Ericaceae growing as a hemiepiphyte in the tropical mountain rain forest of southern Ecuador.• Mycorrhizas were collected from 20 individuals along an altitudinal gradient between 1850 and 2300 m. Transmission electron microscopy was used to study the symbiotic association in detail, and phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear rDNA coding for the ribosomal large subunit (nucLSU) were carried out to identify the associated mycorrhizal fungi.• Microscopic and ultrastructural investigations showed the formation of a hyphal sheath, intercellular penetration of fine hyphae and colonization of the cortical cells by swollen hyphae of the same fungus. These structures were formed by hymenomycetes and ascomycetes. Molecular phylogenetic analysis detected seven groups of mycorrhizal fungi belonging to the Sebacinales. This is the first study to obtain evidence of ectendomycorrhizas in the Vaccinioideae. The ascomycetous nucLSU sequences belonged to members of the Leotiomycetes.• The ectendomycorrhiza of C. nobilis with Sebacinales is discussed as a specific, hitherto undescribed mycorrhizal subcategory of ectomycorrhizas. We propose the term 'cavendishioid mycorrhiza'. This subcategory is most likely specific for the Andean clade of Ericaceae.

The buckwheat family Polygonaceae is a diverse group of plants and is a good model for investigating biogeography, breeding systems, coevolution with symbionts such as ants and fungi, functional trait evolution, hybridization, invasiveness, morphological plasticity, pollen morphology and wood anatomy. The main goal of this study was to obtain age estimates for Polygonaceae by calibrating a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis, using a relaxed molecular clock with fossil data. Based on the age estimates, we also develop hypotheses about the historical biogeography of the Southern Hemisphere group Muehlenbeckia. We are interested in addressing whether vicariance or dispersal could account for the diversification of Muehlenbeckia, which has a “Gondwanan” distribution.Eighty-one species of Polygonaceae were analysed with MrBayes to infer species relationships. One nuclear (nrITS) and three chloroplast markers (the trnL-trnF spacer region, matK and ndhF genes) were used. The molecular data were also analysed with Beast to estimate divergence times. Seven calibration points including fossil pollen and a leaf fossil of Muehlenbeckia were used to infer node ages.Results of the Beast analyses indicate an age of 110.9 (exponential/lognormal priors)/118.7 (uniform priors) million years (Myr) with an uncertainty interval of (90.7–125.0) Myr for the stem age of Polygonaceae. This age is older than previously thought (Maastrichtian, approximately 65.5–70.6 Myr). The estimated divergence time for Muehlenbeckia is 41.0/41.6 (39.6–47.8) Myr and its crown clade is 20.5/22.3 (14.2–33.5) Myr old. Because the breakup of Gondwana occurred from 95–30 Myr ago, diversification of Muehlenbeckia is best explained by oceanic long-distance and maybe stepping-stone dispersal rather than vicariance. This study is the first to give age estimates for clades of Polygonaceae and functions as a jumping-off point for future studies on the historical biogeography of the family.

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Previous molecular phylogenetic analyses have resolved the Australian bloodwood eucalypt genus Corymbia (~100 species) as either monophyletic or paraphyletic with respect to Angophora (9–10 species). Here we assess relationships of Corymbia and Angophora using a large dataset of chloroplast DNA sequences (121,016 base pairs; from 90 accessions representing 55 Corymbia and 8 Angophora species, plus 33 accessions of related genera), skimmed from high throughput sequencing of genomic DNA, and compare results with new analyses of nuclear ITS sequences (119 accessions) from previous studies. Maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses of cpDNA resolve well supported trees with most nodes having >95% bootstrap support. These trees strongly reject monophyly of Corymbia, its two subgenera (Corymbia and Blakella), most taxonomic sections (Abbreviatae, Maculatae, Naviculares, Septentrionales), and several species. ITS trees weakly indicate paraphyly of Corymbia (bootstrap support <50% for maximum likelihood, and 71% for parsimony), but are highly incongruent with the cpDNA analyses, in that they support monophyly of both subgenera and some taxonomic sections of Corymbia. The striking incongruence between cpDNA trees and both morphological taxonomy and ITS trees is attributed largely to chloroplast introgression between taxa, because of geographic sharing of chloroplast clades across taxonomic groups. Such introgression has been widely inferred in studies of the related genus Eucalyptus. This is the first report of its likely prevalence in Corymbia and Angophora, but this is consistent with previous morphological inferences of hybridisation between species. Our findings (based on continent-wide sampling) highlight a need for more focussed studies to assess the extent of hybridisation and introgression in the evolutionary history of these genera, and that critical testing of the classification of Corymbia and Angophora requires additional sequence data from nuclear genomes.

Arbuscular mycorrhizae are important for growth and survival of tropical trees. We studied the community of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a tropical mountain rain forest and in neighbouring reforestation plots in the area of Reserva Biológica San Francisco (South Ecuador). The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were analysed with molecular methods sequencing part of the 18 S rDNA. The sequences were classified as Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs). We found high fungal species richness with OTUs belonging to Glomerales, Diversisporales and Archaeosporales. Despite intensive sampling, the rarefaction curves are still unsaturated for the pristine forest and the reforestation plots. The communities consisted of few frequent and many rare species. No specific interactions are recognizable. The plant individuals are associated with one to ten arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and mostly with one to four. The fungal compositions associated with single plant individuals show a great variability and variety within one plant species. Planted and naturally occurring plants show high similarities in their fungal communities. Pristine forest and reforestation plots showed similar richness, similar diversity and a significantly nested structure of plant-AMF community. The results indicate that small-scale fragmentation presently found in this area has not destroyed the natural AMF community, at least yet. Thus, the regeneration potential of natural forest vegetation at the tested sites is not inhibited by a lack of appropriate mycobionts.

Graffenrieda emarginata (Ruiz & Pav.) Triana (Melastomataceae) was found to be the most frequent tree on the nutrient-poor organic soil in a species-rich tropical mountain rain forest of southern Ecuador. Our studies revealed that the rootlets are symbiotically associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and simultaneously form ectomy corrhizas displaying a superficial Hartig net but no hyphal mantle. Molecular phylogeny revealed a multitude of previously unknown glomeromycete sequence types. Ultrastructure of the ectomycorrhiza-forming fungus indicated an ascomycete, and molecular phylogenetic studies identified the fungal symbiont as a new taxon within the Hymenoscy phus ericae (Read) Korf & Kernan aggregate (Ascomycota). The mycorrhizal state of G. emarginata is considered crucial for its competitiveness and abundance in these sites.Key words: arbuscular mycorrhiza, ectomycorrhiza, Glomeromycota, Hymenoscyphus ericae aggregate, neotropical mountain rain forest, Ecuador.

We conducted a survey on the mycorrhizal status of neotropical ferns, focusing on previously neglected taxa. These include the filmy ferns (Hymenophyllaceae), grammitid ferns (Polypodiaceae), and the genus Elaphoglossum (Dryopteridaceae). Samples were collected at different sites in southern Ecuador, Prov. Loja, Morona-Santiago, and Zamora-Chinchipe. Among the 85 investigated species (101 samples, 10 families), 19 were associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and 36 were infected by dark septate endophytes (DSE), which are identified as ascomycetes and here considered as a kind of mycorrhiza similar to the ericoid type. The roots of 30 species (including all non-grammitid Polypodiaceae and half of the Elaphoglossum species) were free of evident fungal infection. AMF were frequent in terrestrial species (29.10% of species, or 48.49% of infected terrestrial samples). DSE prevailed in epiphytic species (58.62% of species, or 96.15% of infected epiphytic samples) and were also common in terrestrial samples of predominantly epiphytic species.