Direct and inverse photoemission spectroscopies are used to determine materials electronic structure and energy level alignment in hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite layers grown on TiO 2 . The results provide a quantitative basis for the analysis of perovskite-based solar cell performance and choice of an optimal hole-extraction layer.

Developments in organic-inorganic lead halide-based perovskite solar cells have been meteoric over the last 2 years, with small-area efficiencies surpassing 15%. We address the fundamental issue of how these cells work by applying a scanning electron microscopy-based technique to cell cross-sections. By mapping the variation in efficiency of charge separation and collection in the cross-sections, we show the presence of two prime high efficiency locations, one at/near the absorber/hole-blocking-layer, and the second at/near the absorber/electron-blocking-layer interfaces, with the former more pronounced. This 'twin-peaks' profile is characteristic of a p-i-n solar cell, with a layer of low-doped, high electronic quality semiconductor, between a p-and an n-layer. If the electron blocker is replaced by a gold contact, only a heterojunction at the absorber/hole-blocking interface remains.

CH3NH3PbI3-based solar cells were characterized with electron beam-induced current (EBIC) and compared to CH3NH3PbI(3-x)Clx ones. A spatial map of charge separation efficiency in working cells shows p-i-n structures for both thin film cells. Effective diffusion lengths, LD, (from EBIC profile) show that holes are extracted significantly more efficiently than electrons in CH3NH3PbI3, explaining why CH3NH3PbI3-based cells require mesoporous electron conductors, while CH3NH3PbI(3-Clx ones, where LD values are comparable for both charge types, do not.

Mesoscopic solar cells, based on solution-processed organic-inorganic perovskite absorbers, are a promising avenue for converting solar to electrical energy. We used solution-processed organic-inorganic lead halide perovskite absorbers, in conjunction with organic hole conductors, to form high voltage solar cells. There is a dire need for low-cost cells of this type, to drive electrochemical reactions or as the high photon energy cell in a system with spectral splitting. These perovskite materials, although spin-coated from solution, form highly crystalline materials. Their simple synthesis, along with high chemical versatility, allows tuning their electronic and optical properties. By judicious selection of the perovskite lead halide-based absorber, matching organic hole conductor, and contacts, a cell with a ∼ 1.3 V open circuit voltage was made. While further study is needed, this achievement provides a general guideline for additional improvement of cell performance.

Hybrid organic/lead halide perovskites are promising materials for solar cell fabrication, resulting in efficiencies up to 18%. The most commonly studied perovskites are CH3NH3PbI3 and CH3NH3PbI3-xClx where x is small. Importantly, in the latter system, the presence of chloride ion source in the starting solutions used for the perovskite deposition results in a strong increase in the overall charge diffusion length. In this work we investigate the crystallization parameters relevant to fabrication of perovskite materials based on CH3NH3PbI3 and CH3NH3PbBr3. We find that the addition of PbCl2 to the solutions used in the perovskite synthesis has a remarkable effect on the end product, because PbCl2 nanocrystals are present during the fabrication process, acting as heterogeneous nucleation sites for the formation of perovskite crystals in solution. We base this conclusion on SEM studies, synthesis of perovskite single crystals, and on cryo-TEM imaging of the frozen mother liquid. Our studies also included the effect of different substrates and substrate temperatures on the perovskite nucleation efficiency. In view of our findings, we optimized the procedures for solar cells based on lead bromide perovskite, resulting in 5.4% efficiency and Voc of 1.24 V, improving the performance in this class of devices. Insights gained from understanding the hybrid perovskite crystallization process can aid in rational design of the polycrystalline absorber films, leading to their enhanced performance.

The great promise of hybrid organic-inorganic lead halide perovskite (HOIP)-based solar cells is being challenged by its Pb content and its sensitivity to water. Here, the impact of rain on methylammonium lead iodide perovskite films was investigated by exposing such films to water of varying pH values, simulating exposure of the films to rain. The amount of Pb loss was determined using both gravimetric and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measurements. Using our results, the extent of Pb loss to the environment, in the case of catastrophic module failure, was evaluated. Although very dependent on module siting, even total destruction of a large solar electrical power generating plant, based on HOIPs, while obviously highly undesirable, is estimated to be far from catastrophic for the environment.

While polymers hold significant potential as low cost, mechanically flexible, lightweight large area photovoltaics and light emitting devices (OLEDs), their performance relies crucially on understanding and controlling the morphology on the nanometer scale. The ca. 10 nm length scale of exciton diffusion sets the patterning length scale necessary to affect charge separation and overall efficiency in photovoltaics. Moreover, the imbalance of electron and hole mobilities in most organic materials necessitates the use of multiple components in many device architectures. These requirements for 10 nm length scale patterning in large area, solution processed devices suggest that block copolymer strategies previously employed for more classical, insulating polymer systems may be very useful in organic electronics. This Perspective seeks to describe both the synthesis and self-assembly of block copolymers for organic optoelectronics. Device characterization of these inherently complex active layers remains a significant challenge and is also discussed.Optimization of organic photovoltaics and light emitting devices relies on controlling the nanoscale morphology of at least two semiconducting materials with different energy level alignments to maximize charge separation, recombination, and transfer. 1,2 The necessity for nanoscale pattern control is most easily exemplified in organic solar cells. These devices are generally made of two materials: an electron donating (p-type) component in which light is absorbed to create an exciton (bound electron-hole pair) and an electron accepting (n-type) component which accepts the electron from the donor. In this scheme, an electron accepting material is a material with lower HOMO and LUMO energy levels than the electron donor. The HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) are analogous to the valence and conduction bands often used to describe inorganic semiconductors. When light is absorbed by the material, an electron may be excited from the HOMO (lower energy) to the LUMO (higher energy) with the energy difference between these two energy levels referred to as the band gap. For example, P3HT is commonly used as the predominant light absorber in efficient organic photovoltaics and has a band gap of around 1.85 eV (λ ≈ 675 nm). Tuning the band gap energy is important for the optimization of the device performance because photons with less energy than the band gap will not be captured and any energy that photons carry greater than the band gap will be lost when the excited electron relaxes to the HOMO energy level. On the basis of the solar spectrum, assuming an ideal device, a band gap of around 1.4 eV gives the theoretical maximum efficiency of around 33%.After photoexcitation and charge separation the electron and hole are then transported back to the appropriate electrodes through the accepting and donating domains, respectively. This process dictates strict geometrical requirements on the device: the donor-acceptor interfaces mus...

Low-cost solar cells with high VOC, relatively small (EG - qVOC), and high qVOC/EG ratio, where EG is the absorber band gap, are long sought after, especially for use in tandem cells or other systems with spectral splitting. We report a significant improvement in CH3NH3PbBr3-based cells, using CH3NH3PbBr3-xClx, with EG = 2.3 eV, as the absorber in a mesoporous p-i-n device configuration. By p-doping an organic hole transport material with a deep HOMO level and wide band gap to reduce recombination, the cell's VOC increased to 1.5 V, a 0.2 V increase from our earlier results with the pristine Br analogue with an identical band gap. At the same time, in the most efficient devices, the current density increased from ∼1 to ∼4 mA/cm(2).