aThis study was carried out to determine the prevalence of intra-mammary bacterial infections in healthy dairy goats in the central Kenyan highlands, where the highest density of dairy goats in Kenya occurs, in order to formulate mastitis control measures in the flocks.The investigation was carried out in 7 dairy goat farmer groups. All the does that were in different stages of lactation from all the dairy goat groups were sampled once a month for 3 months. The number of does sampled were 130 in the 1st month, 108 in the 2nd month and 77 in the 3rd month. The decrease in the number of does sampled in the 2nd and 3rd months was due to drying off of some of the does. The does were mainly German Alpine crosses with a few Toggenberg, Saanen and Galla crosses. The mammary glands of the does were examined visually for any injuries or swellings and by palpation for consistency and warmth. The first streams of milk from each mammary gland half were macroscopically examined. After discarding the first 3 streams of the fore milk, a 20 ml milk sample was collected aseptically from each mammary gland half into sterile Bijoux bottles. The milk samples were kept at 4°C until bacteriologically processed in the laboratory between 3 and 6 h after collection. In the laboratory the milk samples were streaked onto sheep blood and MacConkey agar plates and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 48 h. Significant bacterial colonies at 24 and 48 h were selected and sub-cultured for 24 h after which they were Gramstained and biochemically tested and classified according to standard methods 5 . With a few exceptions, most organisms were identified to genus level. The data were analysed using Statistix (SX v. 4.0) (Analytical Software, St Paul).Visual evaluation and palpation of the mammary gland halves and the macroscopic examination of the milk revealed no abnormalities. The prevalence of bacteria in the 630 clinically normal milk samples cultured was 28.7 % ( Table 1). The prevalence of bacteria isolated from normal caprine milk varies among studies undertaken in different countries 3 . This has been attributed to the influence of factors such as differences in the time of sampling, the diagnostic criteria used, breed differences, different hygiene and management practices followed on each farm, age and parity of the animals, and the milking method [2][3][4]11 . The goats used in this study were mainly stall-fed and were washed with warm water before being hand-milked. The does were milked twice a day, with no teat dipping after milking. Hand-milked goats have been found to have a lower prevalence of bacteria than machine-milked goats 10 . Hand milking of the does in this study may therefore have influenced the prevalence of bacteria. There were significantly (P < 0.05) more bacterial organisms isolated from the left mammary gland halves (55.8 %) than from the right mammary gland halves (44.2 %). This was similar to observations by Boscos et al. 2 , who suggested that this was possibly related to the milking process. They observed t...
A study on the semen obtained from breeding goats suffering from mild to severe chronic besnoitiosis revealed marked changes in semen volume, colour, density, concentration, mass and individual motility and percentage live. There were also many neutrophils and spermatozoa with primary and secondary defects, including missing tails and deformed heads and tails. The observed changes were considered to be severe enough to account for the infertility observed in the flock. Sections of testes obtained for histopathology were characterised by massive blockage of the pampiniform plexus, degeneration of the germinal epithelium, tubular necrosis with an inflammatory infiltrate and, in some cases, accumulation of haemosiderin-like material in the tunica vaginalis
California mastitis test (CMT), direct leukocytes counts and bacteriological examination were performed on 630 milk samples from apparently healthy mammary glands of dairy goats comprising a mixed population of German Alpine, Toggenberg, Saanen and Galla crosses to find the prevalence of subclinical mastitis. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis was 9.8 %according to CMT, 9.7 %according to direct leukocyte counts and 28.7 %by bacterial isolation during a 3-month period. The proportion of the bacteriologically positive milk samples was significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that positive for CMTand direct leukocyte counts. There was a significant (P < 0.01) correlation between CMT and direct leukocyte counts. There was no significant direct relationship between bacterial isolation and CMT. Bacterial organisms were isolated in 22.5 % of the 568 CMT-negative milk samples. The results suggest that bacterial organisms isolated from the CMT-negative milk samples were either latent infections or did not stimulate any significant increase in somatic cell counts that could be detected by either the CMT or direct leukocyte counts. The observations of this study indicate that the mere presence of bacteria in goat's milk does not mean that the udder is infected and so does not warrant antibiotic therapy
Livestock production systems, production objectives, the cultural values of livestock keepers, and the close relationship between keepers and their livestock have evolved over the years and have influenced the quality of animal welfare in Africa. An equivalent level and quality of care is not evident for companion animals, especially dogs and donkeys, who are often mistreated and physically abused. In the densely populated highland and humid coastal belts of Africa, profit-driven commercial large-scale intensive livestock production systems predominate. As the main production objective of these operations is to maximise profit, the operators of these production systems do not exhibit the same kind of attachment to their livestock as traditional farmers. In some largescale commercial systems animals and birds are kept in sub-standard poorly constructed structures that greatly restrict the animals' movements. In Africa, conservation of wildlife habitats is part of animal welfare, but due to an increasing human population and a greater demand for land for grazing, cultivation, and housing, wildlife reserves are quickly diminishing. This essentially means that the land that was previously set aside for wildlife and forests is being encroached upon and previously unsettled plains and marginal lands are being used for agriculture and mining. In most places there is significant conflict between humans and wildlife, such that wildlife are considered to be pests that need to be destroyed. This is a particular problem in areas where wildlife have destroyed crops, attacked man and/or livestock, or there has been disease transmission between animals and humans. In situations and/or areas that do not have official animal control services, crude weapons, poisons, and traps are used to kill the wildlife. Animal welfare issues, domestic and wildlife related, need to be urgently addressed through policy and legal frameworks and supported by community awareness of, education about, and participation in, animal welfare issues.
A preliminary survey on the prevalence of besnoitiosis in domestic ruminants in Kenya based on field and farmvisits, clinical and <em>post mortem</em> examinations and histopathological examination of tissues and biopsies, showed that goats are the most affected, followed by cattle, while sheep were unaffected. Caprine besnoitiosis occurred in a continuous belt in of the 8 provinces in Kenya stretching from the Coast, Eastern, North Eastern, Nairobi and the Rift Valley Provinces. Mandera, in the North Eastern Province, had the highest prevalence rate of 36 %, followed by Kwale (35 %), Isiolo (35 %), Marsabit (33 %), Wajir (28 %), Nairobi (26 %), Meru (24 %), Garissa (21 %), Taita Taveta (18 %), Embu (17 %), Kitui (9 %), Machakos (7 %), Laikipia (3 %), Kajiado (2 %) and Turkana and Elgeyo-Marakwet (1 % each). In all flocks where the prevalence rates were over 6 %, kids were observed to be affected. There were no significant differences (P < 0.05) between the prevalence rates in bucks and does (18 % and 18.4 %, respectively), but kids were less (4 %) affected. Bovine besnoitiosis was found only in the Tana River District, with an infection rate of 11 %
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