The production of potent toxins by bloom-, scum-and mat-forming cyanobacteria, in fresh-, brackish and marine waters, appears to be a global phenomenon. Cyanobacterial toxins can also be produced by cyanobacteria from terrestrial sources. The range and number of known cyanobacterial toxins are increasing apace as associated poisoning incidents are investigated, and increasingly powerful analytical methods are applied to complement toxicity-based studies on both natural samples and laboratory isolates of cyanobacteria. Water quality management to reduce toxic cyanobacterial mass developments, and schemes to mitigate the potential effects of cyanobacterial toxins, require an understanding of the occurrence and properties of the toxins and of the exposure routes via which the toxins present risks to health. Here, we review advances in the recognition of cyanobacterial toxins and their toxicity, and of the exposure routes with reference to human health, namely via skin contact, inhalation, haemodialysis and ingestion (the oral route).

The production of potent toxins by bloom-, scum-and mat-forming cyanobacteria, in fresh-, brackish and marine waters, appears to be a global phenomenon. Cyanobacterial toxins can also be produced by cyanobacteria from terrestrial sources. The range and number of known cyanobacterial toxins are increasing apace as associated poisoning incidents are investigated, and increasingly powerful analytical methods are applied to complement toxicity-based studies on both natural samples and laboratory isolates of cyanobacteria. Water quality management to reduce toxic cyanobacterial mass developments, and schemes to mitigate the potential effects of cyanobacterial toxins, require an understanding of the occurrence and properties of the toxins and of the exposure routes via which the toxins present risks to health. Here, we review advances in the recognition of cyanobacterial toxins and their toxicity, and of the exposure routes with reference to human health, namely via skin contact, inhalation, haemodialysis and ingestion (the oral route).

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Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) commonly occur in fresh- and brackish waters and may produce massive annual growths as a consequence of nutrient enrichment from natural waters, agricultural fertilizer run-off, or from domestic/industrial effluents. The cyanobacterial species which dominate these growths typically belong to the genera which produce toxins. Cyanobacterial toxins cause fatal poisonings of agricultural livestock, wild animals, birds and fish on a world-wide basis. The involvement of the toxins in human health problems has also been inferred in several countries and their presence in drinking water sources is of interest to the drinking water industry. The occurrence and properties of cyanobacterial toxins are discussed here. New methods are being developed for the purification of the toxins and for their recovery and quantification from waters. These include the use of chemical, cytotoxicity and immunological methods to complement the mouse bioassay which has hitherto been used in cyanobacterial toxin studies with laboratory cultures and water samples. Information on the regulation of cyanobacterial toxin production and on the possible biological significance of the toxins in aquatic environments is also presented. A greater awareness of cyanobacterial toxins in waters destined for human use is required.