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The development of a resilient society is a major challenge for growing human population faced with abundant natural hazards. During and after the May 22, 2021 eruption of Nyiragongo, the local population was surprised and scared by the subsequent seismicity and associated surface fracturing, coupled with the alert of a possible new eruptive vent opening in Goma (Democratic Republic of Congo) and/or Gisenyi (Rwanda). The creation of a toll-free phone number enabled the population to record fractures and gas/thermal anomalies affecting the area. Such work was fundamental in enabling scientists and authorities to assess the associated risks. Crucially, gas data showed that the degassing through fractures did not represent direct transfer of magmatic volatiles but was more likely of superficial origin. Surprisingly, this participatory work revealed that the first fractures appeared several weeks before the eruption and their opening was not detected by the monitoring system. This firmly underlines the need for scientists to anchor citizen science in monitoring strategies.

Volcanic calderas generally host heterogeneous structures composed of several distinct eruptive centers, including lava domes, tuff rings and tuff cones of different ages and sizes (Acocella et al., 2015; Martì et al., 2008). Consequently, the reconstruction of the past activity of every eruptive center, as well as their depositional and volcano-tectonic setting, is highly important regarding the global understanding of caldera evolution. Usually, major deformation structures-such as eruptive fissures, faults, and related damage zones-formed during volcano-tectonic activity, which may have been characterized by caldera collapses (Acocella, 2007;Geyer & Martì, 2014) and may strongly control intracaldera volcanism (Rosi & Sbrana, 1987;Vitale & Isaia, 2014). Such arrays of structures also determine the formation and geometry of the caldera plumbing system and can act as

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