For decades, understanding of leadership has been largely based on the results of studies carried out on White men in the United States. We review major theories and models of leadership as they pertain to either gender or culture. We focus on 3 approaches to leadership: trait (including leadership categorization or implicit leadership theory), behavioral (including the two-factor, transformational-transactional leadership, and leader-member exchange models), and contingency (i.e., contingency model of leadership effectiveness and normative decision making). We discuss how dynamics related to either culture or gender (e.g., stereotypes and schemas, ingroup-outgroup interaction, role expectations, power and status differentials) can have an important impact on many aspects of leadership.

This study investigated the impact of the gender composition of the leader–subordinate dyad on the relationship between leaders' transformational leadership behavior and their subordinates' ratings of the leaders' effectiveness. There were 109 dyads of leaders (58 male, 51 female) paired with a subordinate who was either the same or a different gender from themselves. The relationship between a leader's self‐report on transformational leadership and their subordinates' evaluation of their performance was significantly less positive for female leaders with male subordinates than for female leaders with female subordinates. The male and female subordinates of male leaders rated their performance as equally effective, regardless of their levels of transformational leadership.

This article describes the theoretical framework and rationale that underlie a large-scale international study of the work-family interface. This research study utilizes a multi-level, theoretically based approach. It is being undertaken by a collaborative, multicultural team composed of indigenous researchers from countries that were selected based on theoretically important dimensions. It consists of three empirical components: (1) qualitative focus groups, (2) a social policy analysis, and (3) a quantitative two-wave survey. Thus the data are both qualitative and quantitative, both emic and etic, and both micro- and macro-level in nature.

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