The argument of this paper is that social ties beyond the boardroom matter. At the structural level, social ties from non-profit foundations, cultural organizations, university boards, policy planning organizations, and private social clubs add unique ties to those established by interlocking directorates. In addition, the multiple configurations of these social affiliations increase the centrality and reduce the social distance among the corporate directors. Although visualizations of these social networks underscore the changing roles these extra-corporate ties play in uniting corporate directors, they cannot precisely capture the unique effects of ties created by social affiliations outside the boardroom. Utilizing the concepts of structural redundancy and multiplicity, the paper describes the unique contribution each set of ties makes in constructing the social mosaic of corporate America during the second half of the 20th century. The results indicate a dramatic reduction in the role private clubs play in supplementing corporate ties, and an equally significant rise in the importance of social ties generated by policy planning organizations.
Ample research has identified several features of a learning experience likely to enhance student learning, including collaboration, open-ended exploration, and problem-based learning in real-life scenarios. Missing is a model of how instructors might combine these elements into a single project that works flexibly across disciplines and institutions. This article fills this gap by offering such a model and reporting on its effectiveness in fostering student engagement. It describes a project that instructors at four colleges and universities in Flint, Michigan (USA) piloted during the height of the Flint water crisis. The project asked students to apply class content to the real-world problem unfolding around them, and offered students an opportunity to collaborate with peers. We collected qualitative and quantitative data on students' reactions to the project, and found that the project succeeded in engaging students. We offer recommendations for how instructors can create similar projects in their own classrooms.
This paper documents the changing patterns of corporate interlocking among approximately 250 corporations across four time periods-1962, 1973, 1983, and 1995. By utilizing network analyses, we describe several attributes of the overall set of interlocking corporate directors in a period of increasing corporate concentration, economic globalization, and changing regulatory environments. Measures of network density are based on all corporations and are broken-down by the ties formed by single versus multiple interlocking directorates. Three measures of network centralization are based on complete sociomatricies in which all ties between corporations are non-directional and have been recorded as either present or absent. Finally, we report the number of cliques formed by minimum size across time. Measures of network density, centralization and the number of cliques all underscore that the network of corporate ties in 1995 is less dense, less concentrated, and contain few subgroups. Our analyses at the corporate level demonstrate that these changes occurred primarily among nancial corporations and correspond to a period of dramatic changes in the U.S. nancial markets. Given our descriptive ndings, we conclude that interlocking directorates in the United States are becoming less concentrated, though by no means insigni cant.
This paper documents the changing patterns of corporate interlocking among approximately 250 corporations across four time periods-1962, 1973, 1983, and 1995. By utilizing network analyses, we describe several attributes of the overall set of interlocking corporate directors in a period of increasing corporate concentration, economic globalization, and changing regulatory environments. Measures of network density are based on all corporations and are broken-down by the ties formed by single versus multiple interlocking directorates. Three measures of network centralization are based on complete sociomatricies in which all ties between corporations are non-directional and have been recorded as either present or absent. Finally, we report the number of cliques formed by minimum size across time. Measures of network density, centralization and the number of cliques all underscore that the network of corporate ties in 1995 is less dense, less concentrated, and contain few subgroups. Our analyses at the corporate level demonstrate that these changes occurred primarily among nancial corporations and correspond to a period of dramatic changes in the U.S. nancial markets. Given our descriptive ndings, we conclude that interlocking directorates in the United States are becoming less concentrated, though by no means insigni cant.Critical Sociology 27,2
This article answers Larry Gerber's (1995) challenge for a renewed appreciation of the social science literature on corporatism and state theory by explaining variations in corporatist institutions through the concept of policy legacies. To understand the variation in corporatist forms of governance, three policy areas are key: the long-standing trade policies of the England and Canada, the forms of government intervention during World War I, and prior political battles within the dairy industries. In their own unique way, these policies shaped the character of the market failure, the political capacities of farm organizations, and the institutional response that incorporated private interest groups within the formulation and implementation of public policy. By viewing the emergence of corporatist institutions in England and Canada as examples of governmental responses to economic crisis, this research on corporatism contributes to the larger theory of the determinants, as well as the effects, of the state in capitalist democracies.
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