Background and purpose Nerve conduction studies (NCS) are the current objective measure for diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy in type 2 diabetes but do not assess nerve structure. This study investigated the utility of peripheral nerve ultrasound as a marker of the presence and severity of peripheral neuropathy in type 2 diabetes. Methods A total of 156 patients were recruited, and nerve ultrasound was undertaken on distal tibial and distal median nerves. Neuropathy severity was graded using the modified Toronto Clinical Neuropathy Scale (mTCNS) and Total Neuropathy Score (TNS). Studies were undertaken by a single ultrasonographer blinded to nerve conduction results. Results A stepwise increase in tibial nerve cross‐sectional area (CSA) was noted with increasing TNS grade (p < 0.001) and each mTCNS quartile (p < 0.001). Regression analysis demonstrated a correlation between tibial nerve CSA and neuropathy severity (p < 0.001). Using receiver operator curve analysis, tibial nerve CSA of >12.88 mm yielded a sensitivity of 70.5% and specificity of 85.7% for neuropathy detection. Binary logistic regression revealed that tibial nerve CSA was a predictor of abnormal sural sensory nerve action potential amplitude (odds ratio = 1.239, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.142–1.345) and abnormal neuropathy score (odds ratio = 1.537, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.286–1.838). Conclusions Tibial nerve ultrasound has good specificity and sensitivity for neuropathy diagnosis in type 2 diabetes. The study demonstrates that tibial nerve CSA correlates with neuropathy severity. Future serial studies using both ultrasound and NCS may be useful in determining whether changes in ultrasound occur prior to development of nerve conduction abnormalities and neuropathic symptoms.

Aim: To determine the impact of chronic kidney disease on corneal nerve measures and dendritic cell counts in type 2 diabetes. Methods: In vivo corneal confocal microscopy images were used to estimate corneal nerve parameters and compared in people with type 2 diabetes with chronic kidney disease (T2DM-CKD) (n = 29) and those with type 2 diabetes without chronic kidney disease (T2DM-no CKD) (n = 29), along with 30 healthy controls. Corneal dendritic cell densities were compared between people with T2DM-CKD and those with T2DM-no CKD. The groups were matched for neuropathy status. Results: There was a significant difference in corneal nerve fiber density (p < 0.01) and corneal nerve fiber length (p = 0.04) between T2DM-CKD and T2DM-no CKD groups. The two diabetes groups had reduced corneal nerve parameters compared to healthy controls (all parameters: p < 0.01). Immature central dendritic cell density was significantly higher in the T2DM-CKD group compared to the T2DM-no CKD group ((7.0 (3.8–12.8) and 3.5 (1.4–13.4) cells/mm2, respectively, p < 0.05). Likewise, central mature dendritic cell density was significantly higher in the T2DM-CKD group compared to the T2DM-no CKD group (0.8 (0.4–2.2) and 0.4 (0.6–1.1) cells/mm2, respectively, p = 0.02). Additionally, total central dendritic cell density was increased in the T2DM-CKD group compared to T2DM-no CKD group (10.4 (4.3–16.1) and 3.9 (2.1–21.0) cells/mm2, respectively, p = 0.03). Conclusion: The study showed that central corneal dendritic cell density is increased in T2DM-CKD compared to T2DM-no CKD, with groups matched for peripheral neuropathy severity. This is accompanied by a loss of central corneal nerve fibers. The findings raise the possibility of additional local factors exacerbating central corneal nerve injury in people with diabetic chronic kidney disease.

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SIGNIFICANCEThere is a reduction in corneal nerve fiber density and length in type 2 diabetes mellitus with chronic kidney disease compared with type 2 diabetes mellitus alone; however, this difference does not result in worse ocular surface discomfort or dry eye disease.PURPOSEThis study aimed to determine the clinical impact of corneal nerve loss on ocular surface discomfort and markers of ocular surface homeostasis in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus without chronic kidney disease (T2DM–no CKD) and those with type 2 diabetes mellitus with concurrent chronic kidney disease (T2DM-CKD).METHODSParticipants were classified based on estimated glomerular filtration rates into two groups: T2DM-CKD (n = 27) and T2DM–no CKD (n = 28).RESULTSThere was a significant difference between the T2DM-CKD and T2DM–no CKD groups in corneal nerve fiber density (14.9 ± 8.6 and 21.1 ± 7.1 no./mm2, respectively; P = .005) and corneal nerve fiber length (10.0 ± 4.6 and 12.3 ± 3.7 mm/mm2, respectively; P = .04). Fluorescein tear breakup time was significantly reduced in T2DM-CKD compared with T2DM–no CKD (8.1 ± 4.4 and 10.7 ± 3.8 seconds, respectively; P = .01), whereas ocular surface staining was not significantly different (3.5 ± 1.7 and 2.7 ± 2.3 scores, respectively;P = .12). In terms of ocular surface discomfort, there were no significant differences in the ocular discomfort score scores (12.5 ± 11.1 and 13.6 ± 12.1, respectively; P = .81) and Ocular Pain Assessment Survey scores (3.3 ± 5.4 and 4.3 ± 6.1, respectively; P = .37) between the T2DM-CKD and T2DM–no CKD.CONCLUSIONSThe current study demonstrated that corneal nerve loss is greater in T2DM-CKD than in T2DM–no CKD. However, these changes do not impact ocular surface discomfort or markers of ocular surface homeostasis.

Peripheral nerve disorders are caused by a range of different aetiologies. The range of causes include metabolic conditions such as diabetes, obesity and chronic kidney disease. Diabetic neuropathy may be associated with severe weakness and the loss of sensation, leading to gangrene and amputation in advanced cases. Recent studies have indicated a high prevalence of neuropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease, also known as uraemic neuropathy. Immune-mediated neuropathies including Guillain-Barré syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy may cause significant physical disability. As survival rates continue to improve in cancer, the prevalence of treatment complications, such as chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, has also increased in treated patients and survivors. Notably, peripheral neuropathy associated with these conditions may be chronic and long-lasting, drastically affecting the quality of life of affected individuals, and leading to a large socioeconomic burden. This review article explores some of the major emerging clinical and experimental therapeutic agents that have been investigated for the treatment of peripheral neuropathy due to metabolic, toxic and immune aetiologies.

IntroductionSporadic Creuzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) is a rare disease caused by prion proteins and usually presents in the 7th decade of life. sCJD classically presents with a rapidly progressive dementing illness, associated myoclonus and a median time to death of 6 months. Less commonly younger patients are described with a neuropsychiatric presentation and a prolonged disease course. We report two young sCJD patients with neuropsychiatric presentations and slow disease progression admitted to Liverpool Hospital, Sydney (2016–2017). Case 1 A 48 year old Chinese man presented with a 12 month history of depressive symptoms and insomnia. Over the next 5 months, he developed progressive cognitive impairment, disinhibited behaviour, aggression, paranoia and ataxia of gait. Serial EEG and MRI brain scans, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing for 14–3–3 protein and PRNP gene testing were negative or non-contributory. He progressively became mute, bedbound and died at 24 months from symptom onset. Diagnosis was only confirmed with a limited brain autopsy at post-mortem that revealed severe microvacuolar change, gliosis, neuronal loss and status spongiosus. Anti-prion antibody 12 F10 staining showed a diffuse fine synaptic pattern in the frontal cortex and striatum consistent with sCJD. Case 2 A 42 year old Afghani man presented with a 36 month history of emotional lability and progressive social withdrawal followed by auditory and visual hallucinations, cognitive impairment and gait ataxia. Screening for vasculitis, infective (including HIV/syphilis) and autoimmune encephalopathies were negative. EEG demonstrated non-specific slowing, without characteristic periodic sharp-wave complexes. MRI brain was initially normal but progress imaging showed bilateral cortical ribboning, caudate nucleus T2-hyperintensity and associated diffusion restriction consistent with sCJD. CSF 14–3–3 protein analysis was positive. The patient died 38 months from symptom onset. Post-mortem examination was not performed.ConclusionsCJD in younger patients may present as a slowly progressive neuropsychiatric disorder and ante-mortem investigations may remain negative. Post-mortem remains the gold standard for CJD diagnosis.

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