Filamin A (FlnA) has been associated with actin as cytoskeleton regulator. Recently its role in the cell has come under scrutiny for FlnA’s involvement in cancer development. FlnA was originally revealed as a cancer-promoting protein, involved in invasion and metastasis. However, recent studies have also found that under certain conditions, it prevented tumor formation or progression, confusing the precise function of FlnA in cancer development. Here, we try to decipher the role of FlnA in cancer and the implications for its dual role. We propose that differences in subcellular localization of FlnA dictate its role in cancer development. In the cytoplasm, FlnA functions in various growth signaling pathways, such as vascular endothelial growth factor, in addition to being involved in cell migration and adhesion pathways, such as R-Ras and integrin signaling. Involvement in these pathways and various others has shown a correlation between high cytoplasmic FlnA levels and invasive cancers. However, an active cleaved form of FlnA can localize to the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm and its interaction with transcription factors has been linked to a decrease in invasiveness of cancers. Therefore, overexpression of FlnA has a tumor-promoting effect, only when it is localized to the cytoplasm, whereas if FlnA undergoes proteolysis and the resulting C-terminal fragment localizes to the nucleus, it acts to suppress tumor growth and inhibit metastasis. Development of drugs to target FlnA and cause cleavage and subsequent localization to the nucleus could be a new and potent field of research in treating cancer.

Since prostate cancer (CaP) is regulated by androgen receptor (AR) activity, metastatic CaP is treated with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). Despite initial response, patients on ADT eventually progress to castration-resistant CaP (CRPC), which is currently incurable. We previously showed that cleavage of the 280kDa structural protein Filamin A (FlnA) to a 90kDa fragment, and nuclear localization of the cleaved product, sensitized CRPC cells to ADT. Hence, treatment promoting FlnA nuclear localization would enhance androgen responsiveness. Here, we show that FlnA nuclear localization induced apoptosis in CRPC cells during ADT, identifying it as a treatment tool in advanced CaP. Significantly, the natural product genistein-combined-polysaccharide (GCP) had a similar effect. Investigation of the mechanism of GCP-induced apoptosis showed that GCP induced FlnA cleavage and nuclear localization, and that apoptosis resulting from GCP treatment was mediated by FlnA nuclear localization. Two main components of GCP are genistein and daidzein: the ability of GCP to induce G2 arrest was due to genistein whereas sensitivity to ADT stemmed from daidzein; hence both were needed to mediate GCP's effects. FlnA cleavage is regulated by its phosphorylation; we show that ADT enhanced FlnA phosphorylation, which prevented its cleavage, whereas GCP inhibited FlnA phosphorylation, thereby sensitizing CaP cells to ADT. In a mouse model of CaP recurrence, GCP, but not vehicle, impeded relapse following castration; indicating that GCP, when administered with ADT, interrupted the development of CRPC. These results demonstrate the efficacy of GCP in promoting FlnA nuclear localization and enhancing androgen responsiveness in CaP.

Prostate cancer (PCa) progression is regulated by the androgen receptor (AR); however, patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) for disseminated PCa eventually develop castration resistant PCa (CRPC). Studies showed that AR, a transcription factor, occupies distinct genomic loci in CRPC compared to hormone-naïve PCa; however, the cause for this distinction was unknown. The E3 ubiquitin ligase Nrdp1 is a model AR target modulated by androgens in hormone-naïve PCa but not in CRPC. Using Nrdp1, we investigated how AR switches transcription programs during CRPC progression. The proximal Nrdp1 promoter contains an androgen response element (ARE); we demonstrated AR binding to this ARE in androgen-sensitive PCa. Analysis of hormone-naive human prostatectomy specimens revealed correlation between Nrdp1 and AR expression, supporting AR regulation of Nrdp1 levels in androgen-sensitive tissue. However, despite sustained AR levels, AR binding to the Nrdp1 promoter and Nrdp1 expression were suppressed in CRPC. Elucidation of the suppression mechanism demonstrated correlation of Nrdp1 levels with nuclear localization of the scaffolding protein Filamin A (FlnA) which, as we previously showed, is itself repressed following ADT in many CRPC tumors. Restoration of nuclear FlnA in CRPC stimulated AR binding to Nrdp1 ARE, increased its transcription, and augmented Nrdp1 protein expression and responsiveness to ADT, indicating that nuclear FlnA controls AR-mediated androgen-sensitive Nrdp1 transcription. Expressions of other AR-regulated genes lost in CRPC were also re-established by nuclear FlnA. Thus our data demonstrate that nuclear FlnA promotes androgen-dependent AR-regulated transcription in PCa, while loss of nuclear FlnA in CRPC alters the AR-regulated transcription program.

Estrogens were once used for the treatment of prostate cancer (PC). They may still be used in various parts of the world to that effect. Recent developments in the understanding of a role for estrogen receptor b (ERb) in the development and progression of this disease resurrect the discussion on the intertwined roles of ERb and the androgen receptor (AR) in promoting PC. A new article by Zellweger et al. in Endocrine-Related Cancer investigates the expression and assesses the activity of ERa and ERb as well as the AR, in addition to a phosphorylated form of AR in hormone-naïve and castration-resistant PC.

A new paper by Tawadros et al. in Endocrine-Related Cancer demonstrates a link between macrophage migration inhibitory factor and neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer. This paper may have implications in explaining the effect of prostatitis and chronic inflammation on the development of aggressive prostate cancer.