This cross-sectional study drew on verbal protocol data to analyze the purported problemsolving nature of formulation processes. More precisely, our aim was to explore the allocation of composing time to problem-solving formulation processes in relation to 2 independent variables: (a) the language of composition (i.e., native language [L1] vs. second and foreign language [L2] writing); and (b) the writer's L2 proficiency (via 3 groups at different levels of proficiency). The results showed that the participants devoted twice as much time to dealing with formulation problems in the L2 than in the L1 and that the amount of time allocated to solving problems in the L2 did not depend on proficiency. Proficiency exhibited an apparent influence on the type of formulation problems the writers posed themselves: With increased proficiency, there was an increase, although not a linear one, in the time devoted to improving the expression of meaning or to discovering a better match between intention and expression, or both, and a decrease in the time devoted to compensating for the lack of linguistic resources. We discuss these findings in the light of process-oriented writing research and suggest implications for theory and research.
In this article we explore how oral and written modes may differentially influence processes involved in second language acquisition (SLA) in the context of task-based language teaching (TBLT). We first start by reflecting on the differences between spoken and written language. In what follows, we provide a general description of tasks in relation to the SLA processes. We then establish the links between the learning processes and task phases/features in the two modes. Concluding that the role of mode has been underresearched, we call for a more integrative and mode-sensitive TBLT research agenda, in which hybridness of discourse (i.e., mingling of the two modes within one communicative event/task) is taken into account.
Taking a psycholinguistic orientation within task‐based language teaching scholarship, this study investigated the effects of mode (oral vs. written) and task complexity on second language (L2) performance. The participants were 78 Catalan/Spanish learners of English as a foreign language. Half of the participants performed the simple and complex versions of an argumentative, instruction‐giving task orally, the other half did it in writing. The comparison of the participants’ oral and written performance revealed that speakers produced more idea units but that writers achieved higher scores for subordination, mean length of analysis‐of‐speech units, lexical diversity, extended idea units, and time on task. As for the effects of task complexity, the participants’ written production showed more variation between the complex and the simple versions of the task. These findings are interpreted in light of task modality effects in L2 learning and discussed in relation to task complexity theory and research.
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