Boschma R. A. (2005) Proximity and innovation: a critical assessment, Regional Studies39, 61-74. A key issue in economic geography is to determine the impact of geographical proximity on interactive learning and innovation. We argue that the importance of geographical proximity cannot be assessed in isolation, but should always be examined in relation to other dimensions of proximity that may provide alternative solutions to the problem of coordination. We claim that geographical proximity per se is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for learning to take place. Nevertheless, it facilitates interactive learning, most likely by strengthening the other dimensions of proximity. However, proximity may also have negative impacts on innovation due to the problem of lock-in. Accordingly, not only too little, but also too much proximity may be detrimental to interactive learning and innovation. This may be the case for all five dimensions of proximity discussed in the paper, i.e. cognitive, organizational, social, institutional and geographical proximity. Finally, the paper presents a number of mechanisms that offer, by their own, or in combination, solutions to the problems of coordination and lock-in. That is, they enhance effective coordination and control (solving the problem of too little proximity), while they prevent actors to become locked-in through ensuring openness and flexibility (solving the problem of too much proximity). Boschma R. A. (2005) La proximité et l'innovation: une évaluation, Regional Studies39, 61-74. Dans la géographie économique, la détermination de l'impact de la proximité géographique sur l'apprentissage interactif et l'innovation est capitale. Cet article affirme que l'on ne peut évaluer l'importance de la proximité géographique isolément. Plutôt, on devrait l'examiner toujours par rapport à d'autres dimensions de la proximité qui pourraient fournir des réponses alternatives à la question de la coordination. On affirme que la proximité géographique en soi ne constitue une condition ni préalable, ni suffisante, pour que l'apprentissage ait lieu. Néanmoins, elle facilite l'apprentissage interactif en renforcant, très vraisemblablement, les autres dimensions de la proximité. Cependant, il se peut que la proximité ait des retombées négatives sur l'innovation, à cause du problème de l'enfermement. Par la suite, non seulement trop peu de proximité, mais aussi trop de proximité pourraient s'avérer nuisibles à l'apprentissage interactif et à l'innovation. Cela vaudrait pour toutes les cinq dimensions de la proximité présentées dans cet article, à savoir la proximité cognitive, organisationnelle, sociale, institutionnelle et géographique. Pour finir, on présente quelques mécanismes qui fournissent, indépendamment ou conjointement, des réponses aux problèmes de la coordination et de l'enfermement. C'est-à-dire, ils font valoir la coordination et le contrôle effectifs (ce qui répond à la possibilité qu'il y ait trop peu de proximité), tout en empêchant l'enfermement des agents en assurant ...

The question of how new regional growth paths emerge has been raised by many leading economic geographers. From an evolutionary perspective, there are strong reasons to believe that regions are most likely to branch into industries that are technologically related to the preexisting industries in the regions. Using a new indicator of technological relatedness between manufacturing industries, we analyzed the economic evolution of 70 Swedish regions from 1969 to 2002 with detailed plant‐level data. Our analyses show that the long‐term evolution of the economic landscape in Sweden is subject to strong path dependencies. Industries that were technologically related to the preexisting industries in a region had a higher probability of entering that region than did industries that were technologically unrelated to the region's preexisting industries. These industries had a higher probability of exiting that region. Moreover, the industrial profiles of Swedish regions showed a high degree of technological cohesion. Despite substantial structural change, this cohesion was persistent over time. Our methodology also proved useful when we focused on the economic evolution of one particular region. Our analysis indicates that the Linköping region increased its industrial cohesion over 30 years because of the entry of industries that were closely related to its regional portfolio and the exit of industries that were technologically peripheral. In summary, we found systematic evidence that the rise and fall of industries is strongly conditioned by industrial relatedness at the regional level.

BOSCHMA R. Towards an evolutionary perspective on regional resilience, Regional Studies. This paper proposes an evolutionary perspective on regional resilience. It conceptualizes resilience not just as the ability of a region to accommodate shocks, but extends it to the long-term ability of regions to develop new growth paths. A comprehensive view on regional resilience is proposed in which history is key to understand how regions develop new growth paths, and in which industrial, network and institutional dimensions of resilience come together. Resilient regions are capable of overcoming a trade-off between adaptation and adaptability, as embodied in related and unrelated variety, loosely coupled networks and loosely coherent institutional structures. Regional resilienceEvolutionary economic geography Regional branching Institutional change Resilient networks Path dependence BOSCHMA R. 迈向区域恢復力的演化观点，区域研究。本文提出一个区域恢復力的演化观点。该观点不仅将恢復力 概念化为区域调适冲击的能力，更将此延伸至区域建立新的成长路径的长期能力 。本研究将提出一个区域恢復力的 综合视角，在该视角中，历史是理解区域如何发展新的成长路径的关键，且恢復力的产业、网络 与制度面向融合在 一起 。具恢復力的区域，有能力克服适应与调适力之间的权衡，并体现在相关与不相关多样性，以及鬆弛连结的网 络和鬆散协调的制度结构中。 区域恢復力 演化经济地理 区域分化 制度变革 具恢復力的网络 路径依赖 BOSCHMA R. Vers une perspective évolutive de la capacité d'adaptation régionale, Regional Studies. Cet article propose une perspective évolutive de la capacité d'adaptation régionale. On conceptualise la capacité d'adaptation non seulement comme la capacité d'une région de s'ajuster aux chocs, mais aussi la capacité à long terme des régions de développer de nouveaux sentiers de croissance. On cherche à donner un aperçu global de la capacité d'adaptation régionale où l'histoire s'avère un facteur clé pour comprendre comment les régions développent de nouveaux sentiers de croissance, et où les aspects industriels, réseautés et institutionnels de la capacité d'adaptation se réunissent. Les régions qui s'adaptent peuvent surmonter le conflit entre, d'un côté, la capacité d'adaptation et, de l'autre côté, l'adaptabilité, tel qu'il figure dans les notions de variétés connexe et sans rapport, dans les réseaux à couplage faible et dans les structures institutionnelles peu cohérentes. Capacité d'adaptation régionale Géographie économique évolutive Ramification régionale Changement institutionnel Réseaux adaptés Analyse de dépendance BOSCHMA R. Auf dem Weg zu einer evolutionären Perspektive der regionalen Resilienz, Regional Studies. In diesem Beitrag wird eine evolutionäre Perspektive der regionalen Resilienz vorgeschlagen. Die Resilienz wird nicht nur als die Fähigkeit einer Region zur Verarbeitung von Schocks konzeptualisiert, sondern auf die langfristige Fähigkeit von Regionen zur Entwicklung neuer Wachstumspfade erweitert. Es wird eine umfassende Perspektive der regionalen Resilienz vorgeschlagen, in der die Geschichte eine Schlüsselrolle beim Verständnis der Frage spielt, wie Regionen neue Wachstumspfade entwickeln, und in der Branchen-, Netzwerk-und institutionelle Dimensionen der Resilienz miteinander kombiniert werden. Resiliente Regionen können einen Kompromiss zwischen Anpassung und ...

Asheim B. T., Boschma R. and Cooke P. Constructing regional advantage: platform policies based on related variety and differentiated knowledge bases, Regional Studies. This paper presents a regional innovation policy model based on the idea of constructing regional advantage. This policy model brings together concepts like related variety, knowledge bases and policy platforms. Related variety attaches importance to knowledge spillovers across complementary sectors. The paper categorizes knowledge into 'analytical' (science based), 'synthetic' (engineering based) and 'symbolic' (arts based) in nature, with different requirements of 'virtual' and real proximity mixes. The implications of this are traced for evolving 'platform policies' that facilitate economic development within and between regions in action lines appropriate to incorporate the basic principles behind related variety and differentiated knowledge bases. Asheim B. T., Boschma R. and Cooke P. 构建区域优势：基于&# 30456;关多样性以及不同 693;识基础的平台政策ᦁ 2; 区域研究。 本文展示了基于构建&# 21306;域优势这一理念的 306;域创新政策模型。 本政策模型整合了相&# 20851;多样性、知识基础 197;及政策平台等概念Ӎ 0;相对多样性概念强调 了相互补充的部门间&# 30693;识外溢存在的重要 615;。本文按知识的性ฝ 6;将其分类为：分析性 （以科学为基础）、&# 20808;验性（以工程为基 784;）以及象征性（以ഌ 2;术为基础），不同类 别的知识对于“真实&# x201d;有着不同的要求。 991;章考察了上述分类ल 5;于“平台政策”演进 的影响，平台政策有&# 21161;于整合相关多样性 644;不同知识基础背后௚ 0;基本原则，以此辅助 区域内外协同发展。 相关多样性 不同知识基础 区域创新政策 区域（衍 生）分支 Asheim B. T., Boschma R. et Cooke P. L'etablissement de l'avantage regional: une plate-forme economique fondee sur la variete liee et des bases de connaissance differenciee, Regional Studies. Cet article cherche a presenter un modele de la politique en faveur de l'innovation regionale fondee sur la notion de l'etablissement de l'avantage regional. Cette politique reunit des notions telles la variete liee, les bases de connaissance, et des plates-formes economiques. La variete attache de l'importance aux retombees de connaissance a travers des secteurs complementaires. L'article classe la connaissance, par nature, sous les rubriques 'analytique' (fondee sur la science), 'synthetique' (fondee sur l'ingenierie) et 'symbolique' (fondee sur les arts), y compris des besoins differents pour les melanges de proximites 'virtuelle' et reelle. On en esquisse les implications quant aux 'plates-formes economiques'qui facilitent le developpement economique sur les plans intra et interregionaux a partir des actions appropriees aux principes qui etayent la variete liee et les bases de connaissance differenciee. Variete liee Bases de connaissance differenciee Plate-forme Politique en faveur de l'innovation regionale Ramification regionale Asheim B. T., Boschma R. und Cooke P. Aufbau eines regionalen Vorteils: Plattform-Politiken auf der Grundlage von verwandter Varietat und differenzierten Wissensbasen, Regional Studies. In diesem Beitrag wird ein Modell fur regionale Innovationspolitik auf der Grundlage der Idee des Aufbaus eines regionalen Vorteils vorgestellt. In diesem politischen Modell werden unter anderem Konzepte von verwandter Varietat, Wissensbasen und politischen Plattformen mitein...

This article presents estimates of the impact of regional variety and trade linkages on regional economic growth by means of export and import data by Italian province (NUTS 3) and sector (three-digit) for the period 1995-2003. Our results show strong evidence that related variety contributes to regional economic growth. Thus, Italian regions that are well endowed with sectors that are complementary in terms of competences (i.e., that show related variety) perform better. The article also assesses the effects of the breadth and relatedness of international trade linkages on regional growth, since they may bring new and related variety to a region. Our analysis demonstrates that regional growth is not affected by simply being well connected to the outside world or having a high variety of knowledge flowing into the region. Rather, we found evidence of related extraregional knowledge sparking intersectoral learning across regions. When the cognitive proximity between the extraregional knowledge and the knowledge base of a region is neither too small nor too large, real learning opportunities are present, and the external knowledge contributes to growth in regional employment. Copyright (c) 2009 Clark University.

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Papers in Innovation Studies Paper no. 2017/03 This is a pre-print version of a paper that has been submitted for publication to a journal.

The importance of geographical proximity for interaction and knowledge sharing has been discussed extensively in economic geography. There is increasing consensus that it is one out of many types of proximities that might be relevant. We argue that proximity may be a crucial driver for agents to connect and exchange knowledge, but too much proximity between these agents on any of the dimensions might harm their innovative performance at the same time. In a study on knowledge networks in the Dutch aviation industry, we test this so-called proximity paradox empirically. We find evidence that the proximity paradox holds to some degree. Our study clearly shows that cognitive, social and geographical proximity are crucial for explaining the knowledge network of the Dutch aviation industry. But while it takes cognitive, social and geographical proximity to exchange knowledge, we found evidence that proximity lowers firms' innovative performance, but only in the cognitive dimension.