Adding to empirically based critique in the last 15 years, this paper offers a critical conceptual analysis of the three-component model of organizational commitment in order to arrive at a unequivocal grounding of the concept in standard attitudinal theory.Using the attitude-behavior model by Eagly & Chaiken (1993), we demonstrate that the three-component model combines fundamentally different attitudinal phenomena.Instead, we argue that general organizational commitment can best be conceived of as affective commitment only, being a genuine attitude towards an object: the organization.Normative and continuance commitment, in contrast, appear to be attitudes regarding specific forms of behavior (i.e., staying or leaving) that may or may not follow from the affective bond with the organization. The conclusion of our analysis is that the threecomponent model fails to qualify as a general model of organizational commitment, but instead represents a specific model to predict turnover behavior. Therefore, we suggest limiting the use of the TCM to predicting turnover and to abandon it as a general model of employee commitment. We propose to return to the conceptualization of organizational commitment as an attitude towards the organization and to use Eagly & Chaiken's model to generate specific models for predicting a broad range of organizational behaviors. Finally, we discuss the definition and measurement of organizational commitment, arguing that covering affective, cognitive and behavioral facets of this attitude helps to differentiate the construct from other constructs and to enhance the construct validity of measurement instruments. It has been over 15 years since Allen and Meyer (1990) proposed a three-component model of organizational commitment (henceforth called 'TCM'), based on the idea that organizational commitment comes in three distinct forms: affective attachment to the organization, perceived costs of leaving it, and a felt obligation to stay. These three forms, labeled affective, continuance, and normative commitment respectively, are referred to as "components" of organizational commitment. The affective component is defined as employees' emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. The continuance component is defined as the perception of costs associated with leaving the organization. Finally, the normative component refers to employees' feelings of obligation to remain with the organization. As such, the TCM ties together three separate streams of earlier commitment research (Becker, 1960;Buchanan, 1974;Kanter, 1968;Mathieu & Zajac, 1990;Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982;Salancik, 1977;Wiener, 1982;Wiener & Vardi, 1980). Common to these three streams was the notion of a "psychological state that links an individual to an organization (i.e., makes turnover less likely)" (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p. 14).To date, the three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment can be However, some scholars have argued that the empirical inconsistencies do n...

Although interruptions are daily occurring events for most working people, little research has been done on the impacts of interruptions on workers and their performance. This study examines the effects of interruptions on task performance and its regulation, as well as on workers' psychological and psychophysiological state. Two parallel experiments were carried out in the Netherlands and in Russia, using a common conceptual framework and overlapping designs. Employees with relevant work experience carried out realistic text editing tasks in a simulated office environment, while the frequency and complexity of interruptions were experimentally manipulated. It was hypothesized that interruptions: (i) would cause a deterioration of performance; (ii) evoke strategies to partially compensate for this deterioration; (iii) affect subjects' emotions and well‐being negatively; and (iv) raise the level of effort and activation. It was also hypothesized that greater frequency and complexity of interruptions would enhance the expected effects. The hypotheses are only partially confirmed. The results show that, contrary to what was expected, interruptions cause people to perform the main task faster while maintaining the level of quality. Participants develop strategies enabling them to deal effectively with the interruptions, while actually over‐compensating the potential performance decline. Interruptions do have a negative impact on emotion and well‐being, and lead to an increase of effort expenditure, although not to an increase in activation. Thus the improved performance is achieved at the expense of higher psychological costs. Greater complexity evoked more favourable responses among the Dutch participants and more unfavourable ones among the Russian participants. These differences are interpreted in terms of the participants' professional background. The research demonstrates that the effects of interruptions reach beyond the execution of additional tasks and the change of work strategies. Interruptions appear to have an after‐effect, influencing the workers' subsequent readiness to perform. Detailed analysis of the activity in the interruption interval, focusing on cognitive processes during episodes of ‘change‐over’ and ‘resumption’ support this interpretation.

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We propose to extend the Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect (EVLN) model of employees' responses to adverse organizational circumstances with the construct of Organizational Cynicism. Structural equation modeling was used to fit the data provided by 159 office employees of a large Dutch trade union, who were involved in a restructuring program at the time of the research, to the postulated five-factor model. Results indicated that the model showed an acceptable fit, providing suppor t for including organizational cynicism as a distinct response in the model. Multiple regression analysis was used for the differential prediction of the five responses, using two situational variables (role conflict and autonomy), two personality variables (asser tiveness and rigidity), and selected interactions. The best predictions are obtained for exit, cynicism and loyalty. Loyalty is predicted by low role conflict and high autonomy, whereas cynicism and exit are about equally predicted by high role conflict, low autonomy, and low assertiveness.

Cet article fait la revue de la littkrature concernant les valeurs et le travail, en examinant les Ctudes sur (1) la structure des valeurs, (2) les profils et configurations de valeurs, et (3) le changement de valeurs. Des Ctudes sur la structure des valeurs ont essay6 de trouver des "dimensions de base" relatives aux valeurs en analysant les relations empiriques existantes entre des mesures de valeurs dans diff6rentes populations. Ainsi apparaissent des convergences IimitCes entre de telles dimensions de base. Par voie de conskquence la theorie des valeurs a peu offrir si ce n'est qu'un bricolage de modkles structurels. D'autres Ctudes ont montrC que les nations, les pays et d'autres cat6gories sociales, manifestent des profils et configurations de valeurs distincts. A cause d'un manque de recherche th6orique les origines de ces diffCrences sont encore ma1 comprises. Cela vaut aussi pour la recherche sur les changements de valeurs 21 travers le temps. La plupart des chercheurs sur les valeurs semblent avoir adopt6 un champ d'exploration Ctroit en se concentrant sur les valeursper se plutbt que sur le rble des valeurs au regard d'une thCorie sociale ou comportementale. Tout ceci peut avoir restreint la pertinence de la recherche sur les valeurs en psychologie appliquCe. Pour identifier les lacunes de notre connaissance actuelle, il est prCsent6 un modble intkgrateur qui recouvre trois ClCments (valeurs gCnCrales, valeurs de travail, et activitCs de travail) et trois niveaux (pays, groupes, et individus). Ce mod$le peut aussi servir a cadrer la recherche sur les besoins en psychologie appliquee. This article reviews the literature concerning values and work, examining studies on (1) the structure of values, ( 2 ) value profiles and patterns, and (3) value change. Studies on the structure of values have tried to find "basic value dimensions", analysing empirical relationships between value measures in Requests for reprints should be sent to Professor Robert Roe. Work and Organization Research Centre, Tilhurg IJniversity, P.O. Box 90153, 5000 LE Tilhurg, The Netherlands. 0 1999 International Association of Applied Psychology 2 ROE AND ESTER differentpopulations. There appears to be limited convergence between such "basic dimensions". As a result, value theory has little to offer but a bricnluge of structural models. Other studies have shown nations. countries, and other social categories to display distinct value profiles or patterns. Due to a lack of theoretical research the origins of such differences are still poorly understood. The same is true for research on changes in values over time. Most value researchers seem to have adopted a narrow focus, concentrating on values per se rather than on the role of values in social or behavioural theory. This may have restricted the relevance of value research for applied psychology. To identify the gaps in our current knowledge an integrative model is presented which covers three elements (general values, work values, and work activities) and three levels (country, group...

H ow does the bond between the newcomer and the organization develop over time? Process research on temporal patterns of newcomer's early commitment formation has been very scarce because theory and appropriate longitudinal research designs in this area are lacking. From extant research we extract three process-theoretical accounts regarding how the newcomer adjustment process evolves over time: (1) Learning to Love; (2) Honeymoon Hangover; and (3) High Match, Moderate Match, or Low Match. From these scenarios we develop a taxonomy of newcomer adjustment scenarios. Further, we empirically verify these different scenarios by examining naturally occurring "trajectory classes," which are found to display strengthening, weakening, or stabilizing of the employee-organization linkage. For this, we use a sample of 72 Ph.D. graduates whose organizational commitment history was recorded in their first 25 consecutive weeks of new employment. In closing, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the scenario-based approach.

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