The interaction of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) with limonene has been studied by UV-visible spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking, and its effects on protein conformation, topology and stability were determined by Circular Dichroism (CD), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). A gradual decrease in Stern-Volmer quenching constants with the increase in temperature showed the static mode of fluorescence quenching. The obtained binding constant (Kb) was ∼10(4) M(-1). The temperature dependent Kb, Gibbs free energy (ΔG), enthalpy (ΔH) and entropy (ΔS) changes were calculated, which revealed that the reaction is spontaneous and exothermic. The UV-visible spectra showed a change in the peaks within the aromatic region indicating hydrophobic interactions with Trp, Tyr and Phe in the protein. Moreover, limonene induced an increase in α-helical contents probably on the cost of random coils or/and β-sheets of BSA, as observed from the far-UV CD spectra. The topology of BSA in the presence of limonene was slightly altered, as obtained from DLS results. The stability was also enhanced as revealed through thermal denaturation study by DSC and CD. Molecular docking study depicted that limonene fits into the hydrophobic pocket close to Sudlow site I in domain IIA of BSA. The present study will be helpful in understanding the binding mechanism of limonene and associated stability and conformational changes.

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Binding of hippuric acid (HA), a uremic toxin, with human serum albumin (HSA) has been examined by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), molecular docking, circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy to understand the reason that govern its impaired elimination through hemodialysis. ITC results shows that the HA binds with HSA at high (K b ∼104) and low affinity (K b ∼103) sites whereas spectroscopic results predict binding at a single site (K b∼103). The HA form complex with HSA that involves electrostatic, hydrogen and hydrophobic binding forces as illustrated by calculated thermodynamic parameters. Molecular docking and displacement studies collectively revealed that HA bound to both site I and site II; however, relatively strongly to the later. Esterase-like activity of HSA confirms the involvement of Arg410 and Tyr411 of Sudlow site II in binding of HA. CD results show slight conformational changes occurs in the protein upon ligation that may be responsible for the discrepancy in van’t Hoff and calorimetric enthalpy change. Furthermore, an increase in and is observed from DSC results that indicate increase in stability of HSA upon binding to HA. The combined results provide that HA binds to HSA and thus its elimination is hindered.

Purpose: 3D printing technology provides an excellent capability to manufacture customised implants for patients. Now, its applications are also successful in bone tissue engineering. This paper tries to provide a review of the applications of 3D printing in bone tissue engineering. Methods: Searching by keywords, from the Scopus database, to identify relevant latest research articles on 3D printing in bone tissue engineering, through "3D printing" "bone tissue engineering". This study makes a bibliometric analysis of the identified research articles and identified major applications and steps. Results: 3D printing technology creates innovative development in bone tissue engineering. It involves the manufacturing of a scaffold with the combination of cells and materials. We identified a total number of 257 research articles through bibliometric analysis by searching through keywords "3D printing" "bone tissue engineering". This paper studies 3D printing technology and its significant contributions, benefits and steps used for bone tissue engineering. Result discusses the essential elements of bone tissue engineering and identifies its five significant advancements when 3D printing is used. Finally, ten useful applications of 3D printing in bone tissue engineering are identified and studied with a brief description. Conclusion:In orthopaedics, bone defects create a high impact on the quality of life of the patient. It leads to a higher demand for bone substitutes for replacement of bone defect. Bone tissue engineering can help to replace a critical defect bone. 3D printing is a useful technology for the fabrication of scaffolds critical in bone tissue engineering. There are different binders which can create bone scaffolds with requisite mechanical strength. These binders are used to create excellent osteoconductive, bioactive scaffolds. Computed tomography (CT) and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) help to provide images of specific defects of an individual patient, and these images can further be used for 3D printing the detective object. A bone defect caused by specific disease is sorted out by transplantation in clinical practice. Now a day bone tissue engineering opens a new option for this treatment of bone defects with the manufacturing of porous bone scaffold using 3D printing technology.

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