Silicon (Si) is a bioactive element associated with beneficial effects on mechanical and physiological properties of plants. Silicon alleviates abiotic and biotic stresses, and increases the resistance of plants to pathogenic fungi. Several studies have suggested that Si activates plant defense mechanisms, yet the exact nature of the interaction between the element and biochemical pathways leading to resistance remains unclear. Silicon possesses unique biochemical properties that may explain its bioactivity as a regulator of plant defense mechanisms. It can act as a modulator influencing the timing and extent of plant defense responses in a manner reminiscent of the role of secondary messengers in induced systemic resistance; it can also bind to hydroxyl groups of proteins strategically involved in signal transduction; or it can interfere with cationic co-factors of enzymes influencing pathogenesis-related events. Silicon may therefore interact with several key components of plant stress signaling systems leading to induced resistance.

Contents Summary 67 I. Introduction 68 II. Silicon transport in plants: to absorb or not to absorb 69 III. The role of silicon in plants: not just a matter of semantics 71 IV. Silicon and biotic stress: beyond mechanical barriers and defense priming 76 V. Silicon and abiotic stress: a proliferation of proposed mechanisms 78 VI. The apoplastic obstruction hypothesis: a working model 79 VII. Perspectives and conclusions 80 Acknowledgements 81 References 81 SUMMARY: Silicon (Si) is not classified as an essential plant nutrient, and yet numerous reports have shown its beneficial effects in a variety of species and environmental circumstances. This has created much confusion in the scientific community with respect to its biological roles. Here, we link molecular and phenotypic data to better classify Si transport, and critically summarize the current state of understanding of the roles of Si in higher plants. We argue that much of the empirical evidence, in particular that derived from recent functional genomics, is at odds with many of the mechanistic assertions surrounding Si's role. In essence, these data do not support reports that Si affects a wide range of molecular-genetic, biochemical and physiological processes. A major reinterpretation of Si's role is therefore needed, which is critical to guide future studies and inform agricultural practice. We propose a working model, which we term the 'apoplastic obstruction hypothesis', which attempts to unify the various observations on Si's beneficial influences on plant growth and yield. This model argues for a fundamental role of Si as an extracellular prophylactic agent against biotic and abiotic stresses (as opposed to an active cellular agent), with important cascading effects on plant form and function.

No abstract

Summary The controversy surrounding silicon (Si) benefits and essentiality in plants is exacerbated by the differential ability of species to absorb this element. This property is seemingly enhanced in species carrying specific nodulin 26‐like intrinsic proteins (NIPs), a subclass of aquaporins. In this work, our aim was to characterize plant aquaporins to define the features that confer Si permeability. Through comparative analysis of 985 aquaporins in 25 species with differing abilities to absorb Si, we were able to predict 30 Si transporters and discovered that Si absorption is exclusively confined to species that possess NIP‐III aquaporins with a GSGR selectivity filter and a precise distance of 108 amino acids (AA) between the asparagine–proline–alanine (NPA) domains. The latter feature is of particular significance since it had never been reported to be essential for Si selectivity. Functionality assessed in the Xenopus oocyte expression system showed that NIPs with 108 AA spacing exhibited Si permeability, while proteins differing in that distance did not. In subsequent functional studies, a Si transporter from poplar mutated into variants with 109‐ or 107‐AA spacing failed to import, and a tomato NIP gene mutated from 109 to 108 AA exhibited a rare gain of function. These results provide a precise molecular basis to classify higher plants into Si accumulators or excluders.

The controversial role of silicon in plant disease resistance, described mostly as a passive mechanical protection, has been addressed. Conclusive evidence is presented that silicon is involved in the increased resistance of cucumber to powdery mildew by enhancing the antifungal activity of infected leaves. This antifungal activity was attributable to the presence of low-molecular-weight metabolites. One of these metabolites, described here as a phytoalexin, was identified as a flavonol aglycone rhamnetin (3,5,3',4'-tetrahydroxy-7-O-methoxyflavone). This is the first report of a phytoalexin for this chemical group in the plant kingdom and of a flavonol phytoalexin in cucumber, a chemical defense long believed to be nonexistent in the family Cucurbitaceae. The antifungal activity of leaf extracts was better expressed after acid hydrolysis, extending to another plant species the concept that some phytoalexins are synthesized as glycosylated phytoalexins or their precursors.

Although several reports underscore the importance of silicon (Si) in controlling Magnaporthe grisea on rice, no study has associated this beneficial effect with specific mechanisms of host defense responses against this fungal attack. In this study, however, we provide evidence that higher levels of momilactone phytoalexins were found in leaf extracts from plants inoculated with M. grisea and amended with silicon (Si(+)) than in leaf extracts from inoculated plants not amended with silicon (Si(-) ) or noninoculated Si(+) and Si(-) plants. On this basis, the more efficient stimulation of the terpenoid pathway in Si(+) plants and, consequently, the increase in the levels of momilactones appears to be a factor contributing to enhanced rice resistance to blast. This may explain the lower level of blast severity observed on leaves of Si(+) plants at 96 h after inoculation with M. grisea. The results of this study strongly suggest that Si plays an active role in the resistance of rice to blast rather than the formation of a physical barrier to penetration by M. grisea.

The role and essentiality of silicon (Si) in plant biology have been debated for >150 years despite numerous reports describing its beneficial properties. To obtain unique insights regarding the effect of Si on plants, we performed a complete transcriptome analysis of both control and powdery mildew-stressed Arabidopsis plants, with or without Si application, using a 44K microarray. Surprisingly, the expression of all but two genes was unaffected by Si in control plants, a result contradicting reports of a possible direct effect of Si as a fertilizer. In contrast, inoculation of plants, treated or not with Si, altered the expression of a set of nearly 4,000 genes. After functional categorization, many of the upregulated genes were defense-related, whereas a large proportion of down-regulated genes were involved in primary metabolism. Regulated defense genes included R genes, stress-related transcription factors, genes involved in signal transduction, the biosynthesis of stress hormones (SA, JA, ethylene), and the metabolism of reactive oxygen species. In inoculated plants treated with Si, the magnitude of down-regulation was attenuated by >25%, an indication of stress alleviation. Our results demonstrate that Si treatment had no effect on the metabolism of unstressed plants, suggesting a nonessential role for the element but that it has beneficial properties attributable to modulation of a more efficient response to pathogen stress.Erysiphe cichoracearum ͉ microarray ͉ transcriptome

No abstract