Granzymes are serine proteases stored in cytolytic granules of cytotoxic lymphocytes that eliminate virus-infected and tumor cells. Little is known about the molecular mechanism and function of granzyme (Gr)K. GrK is similar to GrA in that they are the only granzymes that display tryptase-like activity. Both granzymes induce cell death by single-stranded nicking of the chromosomal DNA by cleaving the same components of the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex. Therefore, GrK may provide a backup and failsafe mechanism for GrA with redundant specificity. In the present study, we addressed the question of whether GrK displays identical substrate specificity as GrA. In peptide-and protease-proteomic screens, GrK and GrA displayed highly restricted substrate specificities that overlapped only partially. Whereas GrK and GrA cleave SET with similar efficiencies likely at the same sites, both granzymes cleaved the pre-mRNA-binding protein heterogeneous ribonuclear protein K with different kinetics at distinct sites. GrK was markedly more efficient in cleaving heterogeneous ribonuclear protein K than GrA. GrK, but not GrA, cleaved the microtubule network protein ␤-tubulin after two distinct Arg residues. Neither GrK cleavage sites in ␤-tubulin nor a peptidebased proteomic screen revealed a clear GrK consensus sequence around the P1 residue, suggesting that GrK specificity depends on electrostatic interactions between exosites of the substrate and the enzyme. We hypothesize that GrK not only constitutes a redundant functional backup mechanism that assists GrA-induced cell death but that it also displays a unique function by cleaving its own specific substrates.Important players in the immune defense against tumor cells and virus-infected cells are cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells (1, 2). These immune cells predominantly destroy their target cells by releasing the content of their cytolytic granules, containing the pore-forming protein perforin and a set of serine proteases known as granzymes. In humans, five different granzymes (GrA, GrB, GrH, GrK, and GrM) 2 have been identified that all induce cell death by cleaving critical intracellular substrates. Although GrA and GrB have been extensively studied, little is known about the functions and mechanisms of the other granzymes.The GrA cell death pathway is characterized by singlestranded DNA damage, apoptotic morphology, mitochondrial dysfunction, and loss of cell membrane integrity and occurs independent of caspases and the GrB-induced apoptotic routes (1-5). GrA is targeted inside the mitochondrion (6), where it triggers an increase in reactive oxygen species and loss of transmembrane potential (3, 5). After mitochondrial damage, GrA targets a 270 -440-kDa endoplasmic reticulum-associated complex (SET complex) that contains three GrA substrates, i.e. nucleosome assembly protein SET (4), DNA-binding protein HMG-2 (7), and base excision repair enzyme Ape1 (8). Cleavage of SET by GrA allows the SET complex component DNase NM23H1 to make single-stran...

Serine protease granzyme M (GrM) is highly expressed in the cytolytic granules of NK cells, which eliminate virus-infected cells and tumor cells. The molecular mechanisms by which GrM induces cell death, however, remain poorly understood. In this study we used a proteomic approach to scan the native proteome of human tumor cells for intracellular substrates of GrM. Among other findings, this approach revealed several components of the cytoskeleton. GrM directly and efficiently cleaved the actin-plasma membrane linker ezrin and the microtubule component α-tubulin by using purified proteins, tumor cell lysates, and tumor cells undergoing cell death induced by perforin and GrM. These cleavage events occurred independently of caspases or other cysteine proteases. Kinetically, α-tubulin was more efficiently cleaved by GrM as compared with ezrin. Direct α-tubulin proteolysis by GrM is complex and occurs at multiple cleavage sites, one of them being Leu at position 269. GrM disturbed tubulin polymerization dynamics in vitro and induced microtubule network disorganization in tumor cells in vivo. We conclude that GrM targets major components of the cytoskeleton that likely contribute to NK cell-induced cell death.

Granzyme-mediated cell death is the major pathway for cytotoxic lymphocytes to kill virus-infected and tumor cells. In humans, five different granzymes (i.e. GrA, GrB, GrH, GrK, and GrM) are known that all induce cell death. Expression of intracellular serine protease inhibitors (serpins) is one of the mechanisms by which tumor cells evade cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated killing. Intracellular expression of SERPINB9 by tumor cells renders them resistant to GrB-induced apoptosis. In contrast to GrB, however, no physiological intracellular inhibitors are known for the other four human granzymes. In the present study, we show that SERPINB4 formed a typical serpin-protease SDS-stable complex with both recombinant and native human GrM. Mutation of the P2-P1-P1′ triplet in the SERPINB4 reactive center loop completely abolished complex formation with GrM and N-terminal sequencing revealed that GrM cleaves SERPINB4 after P1-Leu. SERPINB4 inhibited GrM activity with a stoichiometry of inhibition of 1.6 and an apparent second order rate constant of 1.3×104 M−1s−1. SERPINB4 abolished cleavage of the macromolecular GrM substrates α-tubulin and nucleophosmin. Overexpression of SERPINB4 in tumor cells inhibited recombinant GrM-induced as well as NK cell-mediated cell death and this inhibition depended on the reactive center loop of the serpin. As SERPINB4 is highly expressed by squamous cell carcinomas, our results may represent a novel mechanism by which these tumor cells evade cytotoxic lymphocyte-induced GrM-mediated cell death.

Granzyme M (GrM) is highly expressed in cytotoxic granules of NK cells, which provide the first line of defense against viral pathogens. GrM knockout mice show increased susceptibility toward murine CMV infection. Although GrM is a potent inducer of cell death, the mechanism by which GrM eliminates viruses remains elusive. In this paper, we show that purified human GrM in combination with the perforin-analog streptolysin O (SLO) strongly inhibited human CMV (HCMV) replication in fibroblasts in the absence of host cell death. In a proteomic approach, GrM was highly specific toward the HCMV proteome and most efficiently cleaved phosphoprotein 71 (pp71), an HCMV tegument protein that is critical for viral replication. Cleavage of pp71 occurred when viral lysates were incubated with purified GrM, when intact cells expressing recombinant pp71 were challenged with living cytotoxic effector cells, and when HCMV-infected fibroblasts were incubated with SLO and purified GrM. GrM directly cleaved pp71 after Leu439, which coincided with aberrant cellular localization of both pp71 cleavage fragments as determined by confocal immunofluorescence. In a luciferase reporter assay, cleavage of pp71 after Leu439 by GrM completely abolished the ability of pp71 to transactivate the HCMV major immediate-early promoter, which is indispensable for effective HCMV replication. Finally, GrM decreased immediate-early 1 protein expression in HCMV-infected fibroblasts. These results indicate that the NK cell protease GrM mediates cell death-independent antiviral activity by direct cleavage of a viral substrate.

Background: Granzymes have distinct substrate specificities and trigger diverse cell death pathways. Results: All human granzymes can target hnRNP K, which is essential for tumor cell viability. Conclusion: Granzyme-mediated cleavage of hnRNP K contributes to the elimination of tumor cells by cytotoxic lymphocytes. Significance: Elucidating granzyme function provides insights into the role of cytotoxic lymphocytes in tumor immunology.

No abstract

No abstract

Apoptosis is a highly controlled process, whose triggering is associated with the activation of caspases. Apoptosis can be induced via a subgroup of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily, which recruit and activate pro-caspase-8 and -10. Regulation of apoptosis is achieved by several inhibitors, including c-FLICE-inhibitory protein, which prevents apoptosis by inhibiting the pro-apoptotic activation of upstream caspases. Here we show that the human intracellular serine protease inhibitor (serpin), protease inhibitor 9 (PI9), inhibits TNF-, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand-and Fas ligand-mediated apoptosis in certain TNF-sensitive cell lines. The reactive center P1 residue of PI9 was required for this inhibition since PI9 harboring a GluAla mutation in its reactive center failed to impair death receptor-induced cell death. This suggests a classical serpin-protease interaction. Indeed, PI9 inhibited apoptotic death by directly interacting with the intermediate active forms of caspase-8 and -10. This indicates that PI9 can regulate pro-apoptotic apical caspases. Apoptosis is a highly controlled process, whose triggering is mainly associated with the activation of proteolytic enzymes.1,2 In the immune system, apoptotic death in target cells is mediated by cytotoxic lymphocytes (CL) including natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes. These cells induce apoptosis via two different pathways: (a) the degranulation pathway and (b) a membrane receptor-ligand interaction involving members of the tumor necrosis family (TNF).2,3 In both pathways, activation of protease cascades plays an essential role in apoptotic death.Granules of CL contain several serine proteases called granzymes, of which granzyme B is the most important. Granzyme B possesses a unique Asp-ase activity and, upon entering the target cell, cleaves and activates pro-caspase-3 and other substrates to initiate apoptotic death. Target cell death can also be induced by members of the TNF family, such as membrane-bound Fas ligand (FasL) on the CL that interacts with its receptor Fas. Soluble-and membrane-bound TNF and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) also mediate death via their respective receptors, TNF receptor (TNF-R1) and TRAIL receptors (TRAIL-R1 and -R2). 4 Activation of these receptors lead to recruitment of the adaptor molecule, Fas-associated death domain (FADD). 5,6The death effector domain (DED) of FADD then recruits procaspase-8 and procaspase-10 via homotypic interaction with the DEDs in these caspases. Ligand, receptor, adaptor proteins and caspases form the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). The high local concentration of procaspases promotes auto-activation and release into the cytosol triggering subsequent cleavage of downstream effector caspases (caspase-3, -6 and -7) leading to apoptotic death. Altogether, the induction and execution of apoptosis by CLs is mediated both by cysteine proteases, such as caspases, and by serine proteases, such as granzymes.Activation of apoptotic proteases within the...