Ninety-three taxa comprising thirty-two genera (plus four outgroups from Lobeliaceae) were used to estimate a phylogeny of the Campanulaceae based on ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. From 2629 most parsimonious trees, a strict consensus tree with bootstrap values was constructed, in addition to a phylogram showing branch lengths. The topologies of these two trees are discussed in relation to the pollen and capsule morphology within the family, in addition to chromosome number and geographical distribution. The results show that there is a major dichotomy between the colpate/colporate pollen alliance (platycodonoid taxa) and the porate pollen alliance (wahlenbergioid and campanuloid taxa). Both these major alliances are monophyletic. Within the porate alliance there are two major clades, the wahlenbergioids and the campanuloids. The campanuloid clade is further subdivided into two major clades representing the Rapunculus and the Campanula s. str. groups of taxa, plus three smaller clades that are considered as ''transitional'' taxa. It is argued that the family originated in a fragmenting West Gondwanaland and that tectonic processes are responsible for the major dichotomy in the family. The colpate/colporate platycodonoids subsequently remained relatively relictual in Asia, whereas the porate taxa spread over much of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The campanuloid lineage spread over the Northern Hemisphere from a major evolutionary center in the Mediterranean region and is represented in North America only by the Rapunculus group. The wahlenbergioid lineage is widely dispersed across the southern continents and oceanic islands but has a major secondary center of diversification in southern Africa. The use of ITS provides insights for future investigations and a phylogenetic framework that can be tested with other data sets. Its limitations for phylogeny reconstruction are briefly discussed. More extensive taxon sampling and additional data sets are required to refine these results and for a new classification of the Campanulaceae to be proposed.
Traditional medicine has been practised in Ghana for centuries with the majority of Ghanaians still patronising the services of traditional healers. Throughout Africa a large number of people use pangolins as a source of traditional medicine, however, there is a dearth of information on the use of animals in folk medicine in Ghana, in particular the use of pangolins. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalent use of pangolins and the level of knowledge of pangolin use among traditional healers in Ghana for the treatment of human ailments. Data was gathered from 48 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. The cultural importance index, relative frequency of citation, informant agreement ratio and use agreement values were calculated to ascertain the most culturally important pangolin body part as well as the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional healers with regards pangolin body parts. Our study revealed that 13 body parts of pangolins are used to treat various medicinal ailments. Pangolin scales and bones were the most prevalent prescribed body parts and indicated the highest cultural significance among traditional healing practices primarily for the treatment of spiritual protection, rheumatism, financial rituals and convulsions. Despite being classified under Schedule 1 of Ghana’s Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685), that prohibits anyone from hunting or being in possession of a pangolin, our results indicated that the use of pangolins for traditional medicinal purposes is widespread among traditional healers in Ghana. A study on the population status and ecology of the three species of African pangolins occurring in Ghana is urgently required in order to determine the impact this harvest for traditional medical purposes has on their respective populations as current levels appear to be unmonitored and unsustainable.
The diet of Temminck's ground pangolin Smutsia temminckii (hereafter, pangolin) has thus far been studied only in mesic savannahs. We provide arid-zone dietary data for this species based on direct observations, and compare these to available prey species assemblages. We also report stable carbon and nitrogen isotope enrichment values for liver and scales compared to the diet. Pangolins were recorded consuming four ant (Anoplolepis steingroeveri, Camponotus fulvopilosus, two Crematogaster spp.) and one termite (Trinervitermes trinervoides) species, which represent 7.5 and 25 % of the available ant and termite species, respectively. The stable isotope data corroborate the direct observations and confirm that pangolins display a high degree of prey selectivity, however stable isotopes alone were not able to infer the diet of pangolins as a number of non-prey species had similar isotopic values to prey species. Direct observations suggest that these latter species are not preyed on, possibly because they have chemical or mechanical defences or gallery structures that make them unsuitable as prey. Liver was enriched by 3.8 ± 1.2 ‰ (mean ± SD) and 2.5 ± 1.4 ‰ for δ C values of the prey species, and scales were enriched by 2.9 ± 1.0 ‰ and 5.3 ± 1.8 ‰, respectively. We observed no seasonal variation or age or sex-related differences in diet, either from direct observations or isotope data.These results support previous findings that pangolins have further specialised within an already unusual mammalian dietary niche.
BackgroundPangolins (Manidae) have long been used for traditional medicinal purposes in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, very little is known about the extent of this use, the body parts that are used and the ailments these practices are attempting to cure or alleviate. Pangolin body parts are used extensively and frequently by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone.MethodsA total of 63 traditional medical practitioners consented and were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts. The use value, informant agreement ratio and use agreement value for each pangolin part was calculated to ascertain the most sought after body part, the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional medical practitioners about body parts and the most culturally significant body part.ResultsIt was found that 22 pangolin parts are used to treat various ailments and conditions under 17 international categories of diseases. The highest use value was recorded for scales while eyes had the highest level of consensus among the traditional medical practitioners. The highest use value and informant agreement ratio for scales were recorded for spiritual ailments. Scales were the most culturally significant body part according to the use agreement value.ConclusionThis study indicates a high importance value for pangolins as part of these communities’ spiritual, cultural and medicinal beliefs. However, the numbers of individuals harvested from the wild remains unknown and unregulated even though pangolins have been listed under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972, of Sierra Leone, which prohibits any person from hunting or being in possession of pangolins. It is likely that this unregulated harvesting and poaching of this threatened species, for medicinal purposes, is unsustainable and there is an urgent need to determine pangolin population abundance within this region to ensure their sustainable harvesting for cultural use and conservation.
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