The pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered cefepime (1000 mg over 30 minutes) were studied in 5 healthy volunteers and 20 patients with various degrees of renal impairment. Cefepime concentrations in plasma, urine, and hemodialysate were assayed using reverse-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection. Mean peak plasma concentrations of cefepime at the end of 30-minute infusion ranges from 63.5 to 73.9 micrograms/ml and were not affected by the degree of renal impairment. The half-life of cefepime was approximately 2.3 hours in subjects with normal kidney function; it increased proportionately as renal function decreased. Significant linear relationships between total body clearance and creatinine clearance, as well as renal clearance and creatinine clearance, were observed. The mean volume of distribution at steady state in healthy volunteers was 20.5 liters and was not significantly altered in subjects with renal insufficiency. The mean cumulative urinary recovery of cefepime in healthy volunteers was 82.9% of the administered dose and significantly decreased in subjects with creatinine clearance less than 30 ml/min. Hemodialysis significantly shortened the elimination half-life from 13.5 hours during the predialysis period to 2.3 hours during the dialysis period. Cefepime dosage should be reduced in proportion to the decline in creatinine clearance.

The pharmacokinetics of cefepime in 31 young, healthy volunteers were assessed after the administration of single and multiple 250-, 500-, 1,000-, or 2,000-mg intravenous doses. Each subject received a single dose of cefepime via a 30-min intravenous infusion on day 1 of the study. Starting from day 2, subjects received multiple doses of cefepime every 8 h for 9 days, and on the morning of day 11, they received the last dose. Serial blood and urine samples were collected after administration of the first dose and on days 1, 6, and 11. Cefepime concentrations in plasma and urine were assayed by using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. Data were evaluated by noncompartmental methods to determine pharmacokinetic parameters. The mean half-life of cefepime was approximately 2 h and did not vary with the dose or duration of dosing. The regression analyses of peak levels (Cm.) in plasma at the end of the 30-min intravenous infusion and the area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve (AUC>o.) showed a dose-proportional response. The steady-state volume of distribution (V,,) was approximately 18 liters and was independent of the administered dose. The multiple-dose pharmacokinetic data are suggestive of a lack of accumulation or change in clearance of cefepime on repeated dosing. Cefepime was excreted primarily unchanged in urine. The recovery of intact cefepime in urine was invariant with respect to the dose and accounted for over 80%o of the dose. The values for renal clearance ranged from 99 to 132 ml/min and were suggestive of glomerular filtration as the primary excretion mechanism. It is concluded that cefepime exhibits linear phannacokinetics in healthy subjects.

Aims The purpose of this in vivo human study was to assess the effect of altered gastric emptying and gastrointestinal motility on the absorption of metformin in healthy subjects. Methods An open-label, three treatment, three period crossover study was conducted in 11 healthy volunteers. Each subject received 550 mg metformin hydrochloride in solution alone; 5 min after a 10 mg i.v. dose of metoclopramide; and 30 min after a 30 mg oral dose of propantheline. Metformin solution was radiolabeled by the addition of 99m Tc-DTPA. The gastrointestinal transit of the solution was monitored by gamma scintigraphy and the pharmacokinetic data were correlated with the scintigraphic ®ndings. Results Scintigraphic data indicated that pretreatment with metoclopramide decreased gastric emptying time and increased gastrointestinal motility while pretreatment with propantheline had the opposite effect. The systemic disposition of metformin was not altered by pretreatment with metoclopramide and propantheline, as judged by unchanged renal clearance and elimination half-life of metformin. Extent of metformin absorption was essentially unchanged after pretreatment with metoclopramide. However, AUC(0,?) and % UR (percent dose excreted unchanged in urine) generally increased with increase in gastric emptying time and small intestinal transit times. GI overlay plots showed that the absorption phase of metformin plasma pro®le always coincided with gastric emptying and the beginning of decline of metformin plasma concentrations was usually associated with the colon arrival. Only in cases where the intestinal transit was drastically prolonged by propantheline pretreatment, was a decline in plasma levels observed prior to colon arrival. Conclusions Metformin is primarily absorbed from the small intestine. The extent of metformin absorption is improved when the gastrointestinal motility is slowed. These ®ndings have signi®cant implications in the design of a metformin modi®ed release dosage form.

Nefazodone is a new antidepressant drug, chemically unrelated to the tricyclic, tetracyclic or selective serotonin uptake inhibitors. Nefazodone blocks the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors and reversibly inhibits serotonin reuptake in vivo. Nefazodone is completely and rapidly absorbed after oral administration with a peak plasma concentration observed within 2 hours of administration. Nefazodone undergoes significant first-pass metabolism resulting in an oral bioavailability of approximately 20%. Although there is an 18% increase in nefazodone bioavailability with food, this increase is not clinically significant and nefazodone can be administered without regard to meals. Three pharmacologically active nefazodone metabolites have been identified: hydroxy-nefazodone, triazoledione and m-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP). The pharmacokinetics of nefazodone are nonlinear. The increase in plasma concentrations of nefazodone are greater than would be expected if they were proportional to increases in dose. Steady-state plasma concentrations of nefazodone are attained within 4 days of the commencement of administration. The pharmacokinetics of nefazodone are not appreciably altered in patients with renal or mild-to-moderate hepatic impairment. However, nefazodone plasma concentrations are increased in severe hepatic impairment and in the elderly, especially in elderly females. Lower doses of nefazodone may be necessary in these groups. Nefazodone is a weak inhibitor of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 and does not inhibit CYP1A2. It is not anticipated that nefazodone will interact with drugs cleared by these isozymes. Indeed, nefazodone did not affect the pharmacokinetics of theophylline, a compound cleared by CYP1A2. Nefazodone is metabolised by and inhibits CYP3A4. Clinically significant interactions have been observed between nefazodone and the benzodiazepines triazolam and alprazolam, cyclosporin and carbamazepine. The potential for a clinically significant interaction between nefazodone and other drugs cleared by CYP3A4 (e.g. terfenadine) should be considered before the coadministration of these compounds. There was an increase in haloperidol plasma concentrations when coadministered with nefazodone; nefazodone pharmacokinetics were not affected after coadministration. No clinically significant interaction was observed when nefazodone was administered with lorazepam, lithium, alcohol, cimetidine, warfarin, theophylline or propranolol.