Online hate is a topic that has received considerable interest lately, as online hate represents a risk to self-determination and peaceful coexistence in societies around the globe. However, not much is known about the explanations for adolescents posting or forwarding hateful online material or how adolescents cope with this newly emerging online risk. Thus, we sought to better understand the relationship between a bystander to and perpetrator of online hate, and the moderating effects of problem-focused coping strategies (e.g., assertive, technical coping) within this relationship. Self-report questionnaires on witnessing and committing online hate and assertive and technical coping were completed by 6829 adolescents between 12 and 18 years of age from eight countries. The results showed that increases in witnessing online hate were positively related to being a perpetrator of online hate. Assertive and technical coping strategies were negatively related with perpetrating online hate. Bystanders of online hate reported fewer instances of perpetrating online hate when they reported higher levels of assertive and technical coping strategies, and more frequent instances of perpetrating online hate when they reported lower levels of assertive and technical coping strategies. In conclusion, our findings suggest that, if effective, prevention and intervention programs that target online hate should consider educating young people about problem-focused coping strategies, self-assertiveness, and media skills. Implications for future research are discussed.

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Little attention has been given to empirically-tested theoretical frameworks of adolescents' risk for cybergrooming victimization. To this end, we have applied the Routine Activity Theory to investigate whether exposure to motivated offenders (PC/laptop ownership and Internet access in the own bedroom), capable guardianship (parental mediation strategies of Internet use), and target suitability (adolescents' online disclosure of private information) predict cybergrooming victimization among adolescents. Using data from a cross-sectional survey of 5,938 adolescents from Germany, India, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, and the U.S. ranging in age from 12 to 18 (M=14.77, SD=1.60), we have found that PC/laptop ownership and Internet access in the own bedroom, parental mediation, and online disclosure are directly associated with cybergrooming victimization. While instructive parental mediation is negatively related with online disclosure and cybergrooming victimization, restrictive mediation is positively related to both. In addition, online disclosure partially mediated the relationship between parental mediation and cybergrooming victimization. The analyses confirm the usefulness of applying the Routine Activity Theory to cybergrooming. Moreover, the present study highlights the need for prevention programs with lessons on age-appropriate ICT use and access, to educate parents on using instructive strategies of Internet mediation, and inform adolescents to avoid disclosing too much private information online. The Routine Activity Theory might function as a theoretical framework for these programs.

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