Objective Symptoms associated with pulmonary embolism (PE) can be nonspecific and similar to many competing diagnoses, leading to excessive costly testing and treatment as well as missed diagnoses. Objective studies are essential for diagnosis. This study evaluates the cost-effectiveness of different diagnostic strategies in an Emergency Department (ED) for patients presenting with undifferentiated symptoms suggestive of PE. Methods Using a probabilistic decision model, we evaluated the incremental costs and effectiveness (quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained) of 60 testing strategies for five patient pretest categories (distinguished by Wells score (High, Moderate, or Low) and whether deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is clinically suspected). We performed deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Results In the base case, for all patient pretest categories, the most cost-effective diagnostic strategy is to use an initial ELISA D-dimer test, followed by compression ultrasound (CUS) of the lower extremities if the D-dimer is above a specified cutoff. The level of the preferred cutoff varies with the Wells pretest category and whether a DVT is clinically suspected. D-dimer cutoffs higher than the current recommended cutoff were often preferred for even Moderate and High Wells category patients. CUS accuracy had to fall below commonly cited levels in the literature before it was not part of a preferred strategy. Conclusions When PE is suspected in the ED, use of an ELISA D-dimer assay, often at cutoffs higher than those currently in use (for patients in whom DVT is not clinically suspected), followed by CUS as appropriate, can reduce costs and improve outcomes.
In patients in whom PE is suspected, when CTA is available, even the most sensitive quantitative D-dimer assay is not likely to be cost-effective. When CTA is not available or if its performance is markedly degraded, use of the D-dimer assay has value in combination with CUS and a pulmonary imaging study. These conclusions may not hold for the larger domain of patients presenting to the ED with chest pain or shortness of breath in whom PE is one of many competing diagnoses.
Introduction In March 2020, shelter-in-place orders were enacted to attenuate the spread of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Emergency departments (EDs) experienced unexpected and dramatic decreases in patient volume, raising concerns about exacerbating health disparities. Methods We queried our electronic health record to describe the overall change in visits to a two-ED healthcare system in Northern California from March–June 2020 compared to 2019. We compared weekly absolute numbers and proportional change in visits focusing on race/ethnicity, insurance, household income, and acuity. We calculated the z-score to identify whether there was a statistically significant difference in proportions between 2020 and 2019. Results Overall ED volume declined 28% during the study period. The nadir of volume was 52% of 2019 levels and occurred five weeks after a shelter-in-place order was enacted. Patient demographics also shifted. By week 4 (April 5), the proportion of Hispanic patients decreased by 3.3 percentage points (pp) (P = 0.0053) compared to a 6.2 pp increase in White patients (P = 0.000005). The proportion of patients with commercial insurance increased by 11.6 pp, while Medicaid visits decreased by 9.5 pp (P < 0.00001) at the initiation of shelter-in-place orders. For patients from neighborhoods <300% federal poverty levels (FPL), visits were −3.8 pp (P = 0.000046) of baseline compared to +2.9 pp (P = 0.0044) for patients from ZIP codes at >400% FPL the week of the shelter-in-place order. Overall, 2020 evidenced a consistently elevated proportion of high-acuity Emergency Severity Index (ESI) level 1 patients compared to 2019. Increased acuity was also demonstrated by an increase in the admission rate, with a 10.8 pp increase from 2019. Although there was an increased proportion of high-acuity patients, the overall census was decreased. Conclusion Our results demonstrate changing ED utilization patterns circa the shelter-in-place orders. Those from historically vulnerable populations such as Hispanics, those from lower socioeconomic areas, and Medicaid users presented at disproportionately lower rates and numbers than other groups. As the pandemic continues, hospitals should use operations data to monitor utilization patterns by demographic, in addition to clinical indicators. Messaging about availability of emergency care and other services should include vulnerable populations to avoid exacerbating healthcare disparities.
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