Computers are now widely used by children. Tablet computers are becoming widely available and promoted for use by school children. The primary objective of this study was to compare the posture and muscle activity of children using a tablet computer to the posture and muscle activity of children using a desktop computer and paper technology. Eighteen children (mean age 5.6 years) performed a colouring-in task in tablet, desktop and paper conditions. 3-D posture and muscle activity around the neck and shoulder was assessed. Tablet computer use was similar to paper use, with less neutral spinal posture, more elevated scapular posture and greater upper trapezius and cervical erector spinae activity. This was offset by greater variability of posture and muscle activity. Tablet computer use clearly results in different musculoskeletal stresses than desktop computer use. Computer use guidelines need to be appropriate to traditional and emerging technologies. Tablet computers are being promoted for use by adults and children. However, the physical impact of using this type of technology is not known. The findings of this study provide the first tablet-specific evidence to inform guidelines on wise use of tablet computers by children.

muscle tone in the body axis of healthy humans. J Neurophysiol 96: 2678 -2687, 2006. First published July 12, 2006 doi:10.1152/jn.00406.2006. Across the entire human body, postural tone might play its most critical role in the body's axis because the axis joins the four limbs and head into a single functioning unit during complex motor tasks as well as in static postures. Although postural tone is commonly viewed as low-level, tonic motor activity, we hypothesized that postural tone is both tonically and dynamically regulated in the human axis even during quiet stance. Our results describe the vertical distribution of postural muscle tone in the neck, trunk, and hips of standing human adults. Each subject stood blindfolded on a platform that axially rotated the neck, trunk, or pelvis at 1°/s and Ϯ10°relative to the neutral position (i.e., facing forward). The measured resistance to axial rotation was highest in the trunk and lowest in the neck and was characterized by several nonlinear features including short-range stiffness and hysteresis. In half of the subjects, axial muscle activity was relatively constant during axial rotation, and in the other half, muscle activity was modulated by lengthening and shortening reactions, i.e., decreasing activity in lengthening muscles and increasing activity in shortening muscles, respectively. Axial resistance to rotation was reduced in subjects whose muscle activity was modulated. The results indicate that axial tone is modulated sensitively and dynamically, this control originates, at least in part, from tonic lengthening and shortening reactions, and a similar type of control appears to exist for postural tone in the proximal muscles of the arm.

The AMES strategy appears safe and possibly effective in patients with severe chronic impairments. The mechanism underlying these gains is likely to be multifactorial.

Background: Children and adolescents with intellectual disability are at risk of developing psychiatric symptoms and disorders; yet, the estimates reported in the literature have been inconsistent, presenting a potential barrier for service planning and delivery. Sources of variability could arise from differences in measurement instruments as well as subgroup membership by severity of intellectual disability, gender and age. This systematic review aimed to address these gaps. Method: MEDLINE and PsycINFO databases were searched from inception to 2018 and selected studies were reviewed. Studies were included if they reported point prevalence estimates of mental health symptomology or diagnoses in a general population of 6- to 21-year-old individuals with intellectual disability. The Joanna Briggs Institute Prevalence Critical Appraisal Checklist was applied to eligible papers to appraise their scientific strength. Pooled prevalence for mental health symptomology was determined using a random-effects meta-analysis. Results: A total of 19 studies were included, including 6151 children and adolescents. The pooled prevalence estimate captured by the Developmental Behaviour Checklist was 38% (95% confidence interval = [31, 46]), contrasting with 49% (95% confidence interval = [46, 51]) captured by the Child Behaviour Checklist; both rates were higher than a non-intellectual disability population. Severity of intellectual disability did not significantly influence the Developmental Behaviour Checklist risks. Insufficient data were available to conduct statistical analyses on the effects of age, gender and socioeconomic status. Of diagnosed psychiatric disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (30%), conduct disorder (3–21%) and anxiety disorders (7–34%) were the most prevalent conditions. Conclusion: This review consists of the largest sample hitherto evaluated. In the intellectual disability population, mental health comorbidities could be better detected by a symptom phenotype than a psychiatric diagnostic phenotype. Crucially, future research needs to address the effect of measurement validity in the intellectual disability population. Estimated prevalence rates were high compared to the general population, indicating the importance of systematic screening, case detection and appropriate management.