This paper examines how culture and gender shape entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions within Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework and gender role theory. We test whether gender differences exist in the way university students in three nations perceive barriers to entrepreneurship and whether gender has a moderating effect on the relationship between perceived barriers and entrepreneurial intentions across nations. Findings indicate significant gender differences in barrier perceptions. However, this gap is not consistent across cultures. Also, a moderating effect of gender on the relationship between barriers and entrepreneurial intentions is identified. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Purpose-In order to extend the literature on predicting entrepreneurial intentions this study aims to test a model incorporating cultural, social, and psychological factors. Design/methodology/approach-The paper surveyed over 1,000 students at universities in the USA, Spain, and China. Findings-Across cultures, university students share generally similar views on motivations and barriers to entrepreneurship, but with some interesting differences. Further, while cultural and social dimensions explain only a small portion of intentions, psychological self-efficacy (disposition) is an important predictor. Research limitations/implications-The study was restricted to university students. It generated focused conclusions and recommendations, but these may not be more widely generalizable. The study suggests directions for continued work on the relationship between cultural and psychological factors in entrepreneurship. Practical implications-Entrepreneurship education may serve students better by increasing its focus on creativity and confidence-building. Further, curricula should be adapted to specific culturesfor example, a unique dilemma faced by Chinese students is discussed in detail. Originality/value-Performing a cross-cultural comparison made it possible to add fresh insight to debates over the antecedents of entrepreneurship. It also uncovered some important topics for further discussion and research.

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