Background & Aims The contribution of humoral immune responses to spontaneous control of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remains unclear. We assessed nAb responses during acute HCV infection to determine whether infection outcome is associated with the neutralizing antibody (nAb) response, specifically its timing or breadth (neutralization of multiple genotype-matched variants). Methods A representative genotype 1 HCV pseudoparticle (HCVpp) library, consisting of 19 genetically-distinct genotype 1 HCVpp that comprise the natural variability of genotype 1 E1E2 sequences, was used to assess anti-genotype 1 nAb responses during acute infection in at-risk persons followed prospectively. Neutralization of individual library HCVpp by the last viremic plasma sample obtained before clearance was compared to either one-year post-initial viremia or clearance time-matched specimens obtained from subjects developing persistent infection. Results In persistently infected persons nAb responses were delayed then progressively broadened whereas in persons who controlled viremia broader responses were detected early and contracted after clearance of viremia. Surprisingly, the breadth of anti-genotype 1 nAb responses was not dependent upon subjects’ infection genotype. Also, individual library HCVpp neutralization sensitivity was not associated with any known E2 sequence determinants. Interestingly, two single nucleotide polymorphisms in the HLA-DQ locus were associated with nAb breadth. Conclusions Taken together, these data demonstrate that control of HCV infection is associated with more rapid development of a broad nAb response, independent of the infection viral genotype, providing further evidence for the role of nAb in controlling HCV infection and the potential benefit of generating broad anti-HCV nAb responses by vaccination.

Background Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections occur worldwide and either spontaneously resolve or persist and markedly increase the person’s lifetime risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although HCV persistence occurs more often in persons of African ancestry and in persons with a genetic variant near IL28B, the genetic basis is not well understood. Objective To evaluate the host genetic basis for spontaneous resolution of HCV infection. Design Two-stage genome wide association study (GWAS). Setting 13 international multicenter study sites. Patients 919 individuals with serum HCV antibodies but no HCV RNA (spontaneous resolution) and 1482 individuals with serum HCV antibodies and RNA (persistence). Measurements Frequencies of 792,721 SNPs. Results Differences in allele frequencies between persons with spontaneous resolution and persistence were identified on chromosomes 19q13.13 and 6p21.32. On chromosome 19, allele frequency differences localized near IL28B and included rs12979860 (overall per-allele OR = 0.45, P = 2.17 × 10−30) and 10 additional SNPs spanning 55,000 bases. On chromosome 6, allele frequency differences localized near genes for class II human leukocyte antigens (HLA) and included rs4273729 (overall per-allele OR= 0.59, P = 1.71 × 10−16) near DQB1*03:01 and an additional 116 SNPs spanning 1,090,000 base pairs. The associations in chromosomes 19 and 6 were independent, additive, and explain an estimated 14.9% (95% CI: 8.5–22.6%) of the variation in HCV resolution in those of European-Ancestry, and 15.8% (95% CI:4.4–31.0%) in individuals of African-Ancestry. Replication of the chromosome 6 SNP, rs4272729 in an additional 746 individuals confirmed the findings (p=0.015). Limitations Epigenetic effects were not studied. Conclusions IL28B and HLA class II are independently associated with spontaneous resolution of HCV infection and SNPs marking IL28B and DQB1*03:01 may explain ~15% of spontaneous resolution of HCV infection.

Innate immune sensing of viral infection results in type I interferon (IFN) production and inflammasome activation. Type I IFNs, primarily IFN-α and IFN-β, are produced by all cell types upon virus infection and promote an antiviral state in surrounding cells by inducing the expression of IFN-stimulated genes. Type I IFN production is mediated by Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 in HCV infected hepatocytes. Type I IFNs are also produced by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) after sensing of HIV and HCV through TLR7 in the absence of productive pDC infection. Inflammasomes are multi-protein cytosolic complexes that integrate several pathogen-triggered signaling cascades ultimately leading to caspase-1 activation and generation pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-18 and IL-1β. Here, we demonstrate that HIV and HCV activate the inflammasome, but not Type I IFN production, in monocytes and macrophages in an infection-independent process that requires clathrin-mediated endocytosis and recognition of the virus by distinct endosomal TLRs. Knockdown of each endosomal TLR in primary monocytes by RNA interference reveals that inflammasome activation in these cells results from HIV sensing by TLR8 and HCV recognition by TLR7. Despite its critical role in type I IFN production by pDCs stimulated with HIV, TLR7 is not required for inflammasome activation by HIV. Similarly, HCV activation of the inflammasome in monocytes does not require TLR3 or its downstream signaling adaptor TICAM-1, while this pathway leads to type I IFN in infected hepatocytes. Monocytes and macrophages do not produce type I IFN upon TLR8 or TLR7 sensing of HIV or HCV, respectively. These findings reveal a novel infection-independent mechanism for chronic viral induction of key anti-viral programs and demonstrate distinct TLR utilization by different cell types for activation of the type I IFN vs. inflammasome pathways of inflammation.

OBJECTIVES Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and antiretroviral therapy (ART) may increase the risk of fatty liver disease. We determined the prevalence of and risk factors for fatty liver by comparing HIV-infected men with HIV-uninfected men who have sex with men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). METHODS In 719 MACS participants who consumed less than three alcoholic drinks daily, fatty liver was defined as a liver-to-spleen attenuation ratio < 1 on noncontrast computed tomography (CT). We genotyped single nucleotide polymorphisms in the patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3 (PNPLA3) gene and in other genes previously associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Risk factors for fatty liver were determined using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS Among 254 HIV-uninfected men and 465 HIV-infected men, 56 % were White with median age 53 years and median body mass index 25.8 kg/m 2. The vast majority of HIV-infected men (92 %) were on ART, and 87 % of the HIV-infected men were treated with a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor for a median duration of 8.5 years. Overall, 15 % of the cohort had fatty liver, which was more common in the HIV-uninfected compared with the HIV-infected men (19 vs. 13 %, P= 0.02). In multivariable analysis, HIV infection was associated with a lower prevalence of fatty liver (odds ratio (OR) = 0.44, P= 0.002), whereas a higher prevalence of fatty liver was seen in participants with PNPLA3 (rs738409) non-CC genotype (OR = 2.06, P= 0.005), more abdominal visceral adipose tissue (OR = 1.08 per 10 cm2, P< 0.001), and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) ≥ 4.9 (OR = 2.50, P= 0.001). Among HIV-infected men, PNPLA3 (rs738409) non-CC genotype was associated with a higher prevalence of fatty liver (OR = 3.30, P= 0.001) and cumulative dideoxynucleoside exposure (OR = 1.44 per 5 years, P= 0.02). CONCLUSIONS CT-defined fatty liver is common among men at risk for HIV infection and is associated with greater visceral adiposity, HOMA-IR, and PNPLA3 (rs738409). Although treated HIV infection was associated with a lower prevalence of fatty liver, prolonged exposure to dideoxynucleo side analogs is associated with higher prevalence.