INDEPTH geophysical and geological observations imply that a partially molten midcrustal layer exists beneath southern Tibet. This partially molten layer has been produced by crustal thickening and behaves as a fluid on the time scale of Himalayan deformation. It is confined on the south by the structurally imbricated Indian crust underlying the Tethyan and High Himalaya and is underlain, apparently, by a stiff Indian mantle lid. The results suggest that during Neogene time the underthrusting Indian crust has acted as a plunger, displacing the molten middle crust to the north while at the same time contributing to this layer by melting and ductile flow. Viewed broadly, the Neogene evolution of the Himalaya is essentially a record of the southward extrusion of the partially molten middle crust underlying southern Tibet.

Based on published results of experiments on low‐temperature, low‐pressure frictional sliding and creep at higher temperature and pressure, theoretical curves of yield strength versus depth corresponding to maximum crustal stresses (STRESSMAX) are calculated. These curves are compared to the frequency‐depth distribution of earthquakes (DEFREQ) in several tectonic areas. Both sets of curves have a very similar form and show a prominent peak. From the similarity it is concluded that it is basically the temperature and the water content of the entire crust, not the properties of a particular layer, which determine the shape of maxima of the DEFREQ curves. The peaks of DEFREQ curves are generally at 5‐ to l0‐km depth and agree with STRESSMAX peaks of wet upper crust only. At this depth range the high stresses provide an increased ‘cracking potential’, resulting in an increased number and an increased stress drop of earthquakes. More and stronger barriers/asperities seem to exist at these depths, causing large earthquakes to nucleate in this high‐strength region. The stresses required to overcome the strength maximum are built up from below by ductile creep. The lower crust is considered to be a stress and viscosity minimum; in orogenic zones, strong interaction with plumes from the mantle may take place, and lateral movements are probable.

Summary In the summer of 1998, project INDEPTH recorded a 400 km long NNW–SSE wide‐angle seismic profile in central Tibet, from the Lhasa terrane across the Banggong‐Nujiang suture (BNS) at about 89.5°E and into the Qiangtang terrane. Analysis of the P‐wave data reveals that (1) the crustal thickness is 65 ± 5 km beneath the line; (2) there is no 20 km step in the Moho in the vicinity of the BNS, as has been suggested to exist along‐strike to the east based on prior fan profiling; (3) a thick high‐velocity lower crustal layer is evident along the length of the profile (20–35 km thick, 6.5–7.3 km s−1); and (4) in contrast to the southern Lhasa terrane, there is no obvious evidence of a mid‐crustal low‐velocity layer in the P‐wave data, although the data do not negate the possibility of such a layer of modest proportions. Combining the results from the INDEPTH III wide‐angle profile with other seismic results allows a cross‐section of Moho depths to be constructed across Tibet. This cross‐section shows that crustal thickness tends to decrease from south to north, with values of 70–80 km south of the middle of the Lhasa terrane, 60–70 km in the northern part of the Lhasa terrane and the Qiangtang terrane, and less than 60 km in the Qaidam basin. The overall northward thinning of the crust evident in the combined seismic observations, coupled with the essentially uniform surface elevation of the plateau south of the Qaidam basin, is supportive of the inference that northern Tibet until the Qaidam basin is underlain by somewhat thinner crust, which is isostatically supported by relatively low‐density, hot upper mantle with respect to southern Tibet.

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[1] During the summer of 1998, active-source seismic data were collected along a transect running 400 km NNW-SSE across the central Tibetan Plateau as the third phase of project INDEPTH (International Deep Profiling of Tibet and the Himalaya). The transect extends northward from the central Lhasa block, across the Jurassic Bangong-Nujiang Suture (BNS) at 89.5°E, to the central Qiangtang block. A seismic velocity model for the transect to $25 km depth produced by inversion of P wave first arrivals on $3000 traces shows (1) a $50-km-wide region of low velocity (at least 5% less than surrounding velocities) extending to the base of the model at the BNS; (2) sedimentary cover for the southern Qiangtang block that is $3.5 km thick; (3) a distinct interface between sedimentary cover and Qiangtang basement or underplated Jurassic melange in the central Qiangtang block; and (4) evidence that the Bangoin granite extends to a depth of at least 15 km. The BNS has little geophysical signature, and appears unrelated to the $5 km northward shallowing of the Moho which is associated with the BNS in central Tibet. Geophysical data along the main INDEPTH III transect show little evidence for widespread crustal fluids, in contrast to the seismic ''bright spots'' found in southern Tibet and to magnetotelluric evidence of fluid accumulations in eastern Tibet. A comparison between the global average and Tibetan velocity-depth functions offers constraints for models of plateau uplift and crustal thickening. Taken together with the weak geophysical signature of the BNS, these velocitydepth functions suggest that convergence has been accommodated largely through pure-shear thickening accompanied by removal of lower crustal material by lateral escape, likely via ductile flow. Although we cannot resolve the details, we believe lateral lower crustal flow has overprinted or destroyed evidence in the deep crust for the earlier assembly of Tibet as a series of accreted terranes.

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The velocity and attenuation of compressional([Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] respectively) and shear waves ([Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], respectively), determined with the Pulse Transmission technique at a frequency of about 100 kHz, are compared with the grain size, shape, porosity, density, and static frame compressibility of dry and water‐saturated sands. Except for [Formula: see text], all the quantities [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] are dependent on grain size and are higher in coarser grains than in finer grains. [Formula: see text] decreases significantly with increasing differential pressure in coarse‐grained sediments, but the same sediments show an anomalous increase with differential pressure in [Formula: see text] at low pressures. We have also modeled the [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] of these samples to understand the mechanisms governing the observed changes. The Contact Radius model with surface force effects predicts both [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] to be dependent on grain size. Frictional losses in unconsolidated coarse‐grained sands must also be considered at small strains [Formula: see text]. Velocity and losses measured in saturated sands are higher than those predicted by the Biot model, which does not account for any grain size dependence of the seismic qualities.