This study is a systematic review of 20 years of research on the usage of virtual reality (VR) in K‐12 and higher education settings, which aims to consolidate, evaluate, and communicate evidence that can inform both the theory and practice of VR‐based instruction. A total of 149 articles were selected from three major academic databases using search strings and manual screening protocols. The literature analysis emphasized four interrelated aspects of VR‐based instruction: instructional context, instructional design, technological affordances, and research findings. The results revealed evolving trends in the VR literature in terms of publication patterns, pedagogical assumptions, equipment usage, and research methodologies, as well as the contextual factors behind VR adoption in education. Additionally, a meta‐analysis was conducted to examine the efficacy of VR‐based instruction, with results indicating an overall medium effect and several moderating factors. Finally, practical implications and a future research agenda for VR‐based instruction are discussed.

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With its capacity to support student-centered learning through digital transformation and shared experience, augmented reality (AR) has received increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners as an emerging technology to achieve innovative and sustainable education. Therefore, this study systematically reviewed the literature on the application of augmented reality in K–12 education settings between 2000 and 2020. After two stages of screening, 129 articles were selected, and the key research results were analyzed and integrated by adopting a coding scheme including basic information, instruction contexts, technical features, instructional design, and research results. The results revealed interesting findings regarding the augmented reality literature in terms of publication patterns, application fields, technological affordances, instructional designs, and methods. Furthermore, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effectiveness of augmented reality-based instruction, and the results showed a large overall effect size (g = 0.919) with three significant moderators. Finally, the practical significance of AR-based instruction and a future research agenda are discussed.

This study presents a systematic review of literature on the application of augmented reality (AR) in professional training contexts published between 2001 and 2020. A total of 49 articles were selected after a two-stage screening process, and key research findings were analyzed and synthesized using a coding scheme comprising five inter-related aspects: basic information, instructional contexts, technology features, instructional design, and research results. The review results depict the trend patterns in AR-supported professional training in terms of publication, research paradigm, and technological affordances, and report the contextual differences in AR pedagogies and instructional functions over time. Furthermore, a meta-analysis was conducted in the present study to examine the overall effectiveness of AR application in professional training, with the results indicating an overall small effect size (g = 0.268) and nine significant moderating factors. Informed by the review and meta-analysis results, a set of implications for facilitating and investigating AR-supported professional training are proposed and discussed.

With its ability to afford immersive and interactive learning experiences, virtual reality has been widely used to support experiential learning, of which the learning effectiveness is promoted by the instructional component of debriefing. The current literature on debriefing mainly focuses on the traditional learning contexts while little is known on its effectiveness in immersive virtual reality (IVR) learning environments. Based on the theories of experiential learning and debriefing, this study designed a debriefing strategy based on simulated learning experience and investigated its effectiveness on knowledge and behavioral learning in an IVR learning program, using a randomized controlled trial with 77 elementary students from Hubei province in China. The study results support the efficacy of IVR on improving knowledge acquisition and behavioral performance, and reveal a significant moderating effect of debriefing on the effectiveness of IVR learning environments. The study confirms the critical role of debriefing in IVR-based instruction and provides theoretical and practical implications for the design and implementation of effective IVR learning environments.

This study explored the relationship between technology acceptance and learning satisfaction in the context of blended learning, with a particular focus on the mediating effects of online behaviors, emotional experience, social belonging, and higher-order thinking. A total of 110 Chinese university students participated in this study and completed a questionnaire at the end of 11 weeks of blended learning. The results demonstrate that technology acceptance directly and indirectly relates to blended learning satisfaction. The mediation analysis further revealed two significant mediating pathways from technology acceptance to blended learning satisfaction: one through higher-order thinking, and the other through serial mediation of emotional experience, social belonging, and higher-order thinking. Moreover, there was no significant mediating effect of online learning behaviors on blended learning satisfaction. Based on these results, we have proposed practical implications for improving blended learning practice to promote learner satisfaction. These results contribute to our understanding of blended learning as an integrated construct under the triadic interplay of technical environment, learning behaviors, and individual perceptions.