The relations among infant anger reactivity, approach behavior, and frontal EEG asymmetry, and their relations to inhibitory control and behavior problems in early childhood were examined within the context of a longitudinal study of temperament. Two hundred and nine infants’ anger expressions to arm restraint were observed at 4 months of age. Infants’ approach behaviors during play with an unpredictable toy and baseline frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry were assessed at 9 months of age. Inhibitory control during a Go/No-Go task and parent-report of behavior problems were evaluated at 4 years of age. High anger-prone infants with left, but not right, frontal EEG asymmetry showed significantly more approach behaviors and less inhibitory control relative to less anger-prone infants. Although a link between anger proneness in infancy and behavior problems in early childhood was not found, a combination of low approach behaviors and poor inhibitory control was predictive of internalizing behaviors.

Social class demarcates sociocultural environments differing in the relative abundance and scarcity of resources, which in turn differentially afford independent and interdependent psychological processes. The relationships between social class and psychological processes are well documented in Western populations but less so elsewhere. Examining such a relationship is particularly important in China, with its unique historical and sociocultural issues surrounding social class. This research examined the relationship between social class and independence-interdependence among Chinese adolescents (N = 1184). Findings were consistent across a diverse array of psychological processes implicated by independence-interdependence: Participants with well-educated parents experienced more socially disengaging emotions and a higher level of self-esteem, and were more inclined toward dispositional attribution and focused attention, compared to participants with less well-educated parents. These findings highlight the cross-cultural commonality in the relationship between social class and independence-interdependence.

This study investigated anger expression during toy removal (TR) in 92 young Chinese children, two to five years of age, and its relations to their persistence in responding to obstacles during two challenging tasks with highly desirable goals [TR and locked box (LB)] and one challenging task with a less desirable goal [impossible perfect circles (IPC)]. Anger expression during TR was positively associated with persistence during TR and LB but not during IPC. The results highlighted the positive effects of anger in the development of persistence.

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We examined two aspects of temperamental approach in early infancy, positive reactivity and anger, and their unique and combined influences on maternal reports of child surgency and attention focusing at 4 years of age. One hundred and fourteen infants were observed for their positive reactions to novel stimuli at 4 months, and their anger expressions during arm restraint at 9 months. Child surgency and attention focusing at age 4 years were assessed by maternal report. Infants who expressed more anger to restraint were rated higher in surgency during early childhood relative to infants who expressed less anger. The effects of positive reactivity to novelty on attention focusing were moderated by anger to restraint. These findings suggest that infant temperamental approach tendencies are multifaceted and have both unique and combined influences on later maternal report of attention and social behavior.