Distinct subtypes of inhibitory interneuron are known to shape diverse rhythmic activities in the cortex, but how they interact to orchestrate specific band activity remains largely unknown. By recording optogenetically tagged interneurons of specific subtypes in the primary visual cortex of behaving mice, we show that spiking of somatostatin (SOM)- and parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons preferentially correlates with cortical beta and gamma band oscillations, respectively. Suppression of SOM cell spiking reduces the spontaneous low-frequency band (<30-Hz) oscillations and selectively reduces visually induced enhancement of beta oscillation. In comparison, suppressing PV cell activity elevates the synchronization of spontaneous activity across a broad frequency range and further precludes visually induced changes in beta and gamma oscillations. Rhythmic activation of SOM and PV cells in the local circuit entrains resonant activity in the narrow 5- to 30-Hz band and the wide 20- to 80-Hz band, respectively. Together, these findings reveal differential and cooperative roles of SOM and PV inhibitory neurons in orchestrating specific cortical oscillations.

In vivo induction of non-neuronal cells into neurons by transcription factors offers

The NCEP/NCAR pentad mean reanalysis data from 1980 to 1994 are employed to examine the activities of the 100 hPa South Asia High (SAH) during the boreal summer. The results show that there exists bimodality in the longitude location of the SAH. According to the two preferred regions for the SAH, the SAH is classified into the Tibetan Mode (TM) and the Iranian Mode (IM), respectively. The studies on the maintenance mechanism, both from circulation structure and thermal structure, manifest that the SAH has the feature of warm preference. The diagnosis based on the thermodynamic equation further reveals that the TM is closely related to the diabatic heating of the Tibetan Plateau, whereas the IM is more associated with the adiabatic heating in the free atmosphere, as well as the diabatic heating near the surface.The statistical composites, and case studies, corresponding to the two modes show that the SAH bimodality is strongly related to the climate anomalies over East Asia. In the case of TM, the southerly airflow over the subtropics and the northerly airflow over the middle-high latitude at 850 hPa are enhanced, forming a convergence zone along 30 N and resulting in increased rainfall extending from the south Japan, Korea Peninsula, and Yangtze-Yellow river valley of China to the Tibetan Plateau. In the case of IM, at 850 hPa the mid-latitude East Asia is dominated by a huge anomalous anticyclone, thus results in the decreased rainfall over the area.

In this paper, we report the first wetland mapping of the entire China using Landsat enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) data. These data were obtained from the Global Land Cover Facility at the University of Maryland spanning from 1999 to 2002. A total of 597 scenes of Landsat images were georeferenced and mosaiced. Manual image interpretation of satellite images was aided with elevation data, soil data, land cover/land use data and Google Earth. The minimum mapping unit is 10 pixel × 10 pixel, equivalent to 9 ha. The aim of our first round of mapping was only targeted at the boundary delineation of any type of wetland except those wetlands that are under agricultural use (i.e., paddy fields), which has already been well mapped by others. Our interpretation results indicate that a total of 359478 km 2 of wetlands are of non-agricultural use. Among our preliminarily mapped wetland, 339353 km 2 are inland wetland, 2786 km 2 are non-agricultural artificial wetland, and 17609 km 2 are coastal wetland. Because low-tide is rarely captured in satellite images, an under-estimation of coastal wetland is inevitable. We conducted some statistics based on our mapped wetlands and compared them with those previously obtained from a number of sources including a land cover/land use map made with satellite images during the late 1990s and early 2000s, a marshland map developed in approximately the same period, survey data of coastal wetland in early 1980s, and area data for approximately 400 larger patches of marshland in China compiled in 1996. Because some inconsistencies exist in the guidelines of those different wetland surveys, difference in area is expected. Some further comparison indicates that the wetland distributions derived from the preliminary wetland map are reasonable and more objective than other sources. The mapping process also indicated that the method adopted by us was efficient and cost-effective. We also found that in order to ensure comparability of the wetland maps developed at different times, a set of standard guidelines on the wetland categories to be mapped, and the mapping methods to be used must be well conceived, developed and effectively employed. We carried out some initial geographical analysis on the distribution of wetlands.China wetlands, remote sensing, wetland mapping Wetlands host a biodiversity far beyond any other ecosystem. Along with oceans and forests, wetlands form the three major ecosystems on earth [1] . In the past two hundred years, human activity and settlement has drastically reduced wetlands [2] . From the 1780s to 1980s, America's wetlands were reduced by 53% [3] . In England, since the Rome times, 23% of the river deltas, 50% of marsh and 40% of the bog have disappeared (http:// www.ramsar.org/about/about_wetland_loss.htm, 1996) [4] .

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A regional climate model is coupled to a regional ocean model in this study, its performance in simulating the East Asian summer monsoon in 1998 is discussed, and the cold drift of the simulated sea-surface temperature (SST) that appears in the coupled model system and the reasons for its existence are found. The atmospheric component of the coupled model system is a regional climate model named P -σ RCM, and the oceanic component of the coupled model is based on the Princeton ocean model (POM). By simulation-to-observation comparison, it is shown that the coupled model has a certain ability to simulate the seasonal propagation of the monsoon rain belt, the associated low-level southwest wind and the western Pacific subtropical high from May to August in 1998. It can reproduce the East Asian summer monsoon onset during the third dekad of May and its evolution process after the onset. From the coupled simulation results, it is also found that the south-to-north inflow in the southern South China Sea (SCS) and the summer monsoon current to the south of Sri Lanka do not occur until after mid-May, indicating that the ocean surface currents in the SCS and the Bay of Bengal regions are closely related with the SCS summer monsoon. The coupled simulation results show some differences with the individual uncoupled P -σ RCM and POM. The obvious difference between the coupled and the uncoupled POM (also observation) is a cold tendency of simulated SST in the coupled model system. Two experimental groups are performed to investigate the reasons for the 'cold drift'. The results confirm that the 'cold drift' is mainly caused by the disagreement of the surface heat fluxes produced by the atmosphere model with those required by the POM. Therefore, a more accurate description and parameterization of the physical process in the atmosphere model is an important way to decrease the differences.