Background: Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the important parasitic diarrheal agent Cryptosporidium spp. Cryptosporidiosis occurs in all classes of animals and man with a rapidly expanding host range and increased importance since the occurrence of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in man. Objectives: To review the global picture of cryptosporidiosis in man and animals with emphasis on prevalence and risk factors. Methods: Current relevant literature on cryptosporidiosis was reviewed. Results: Cryptosporidiosis is widely distributed and the risk factors vary from one region to another with hygiene and immune status as important risk factors. Conclusions: Cryptosporidium spp. associated mortality has not only been reported in immune-compromised patients, but also in immune-competent patients. Yet in many countries not much attention is paid to the control and prevention of this infection in animals and man. The neglect of this disease despite the serious threat it poses to animals, their husbandry, and humans, has led the World Health Organization to list it among globally neglected diseases. To control and prevent this infection more effort needs to be directed at controlling the risk factors of the infection in man and animals.

Brucellosis is the most common worldwide zoonosis with 500,000 new cases every year in humans and infections in millions of animals. This infection is mainly acquired by humans through consumption of unpasteurized milk and milk products from infected animals. Exposure can also occur occupationally in those who work closely with animals through contact with aborted fetuses and reproductive secretions. Animals acquire the infection from other infected animals through direct contact and vertical transmission. This infection is prevalent in all continents of the world except Antarctica, but its impact is more felt in developing countries where it is endemic in animals and humans. In certain developed countries where the disease was eradicated, there seem to be a re-emergence of the disease as the disease appears to claim more territory. The risk factors of the disease may vary from country to country and region to region, but most risk factors are similar. Consumption of unpasteurized milk and milk products plays a very important role in the transmission of this infection from animals to humans, in addition to direct contact with infected animals and their secretions. The best way to control this ubiquitous infection is through the One Health approach which involves human health, animal health, and environmental health. This paper reviews the prevalence of brucellosis in some countries in various continents of the world and highlights the risk factors responsible for the persistence of this infection in animals and humans with a view to proffering solution to this age-old zoonosis that has defied eradication for many generations in many parts of the world.

No abstract

Caprine brucellosis is a bacterial zoonotic infection affecting goats especially in developing countries all over the world. In Malaysia, the risk factors associated with this infection in farms have not been studied. A case-control study was carried out in goat farms in four states of Malaysia to elucidate the risk factors associated with the infection on the farms using structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. Results indicate that the introduction of new animals (OR = 5.25; 90 % CI = 1.46, 18.88), younger age category of farms (OR = 5.53; 90 % CI = 1.09, 21.66), and farms with single breed of goats (OR = 8.50; 90 % CI = 1.27, 41.97) were significant risk factors for brucellosis. In order to control brucellosis or possibly eradicate it in goat farms, these factors need to be dealt with. Enforcing stringent importation protocols or complete ban of goat importation from brucellosis endemic countries will help reduce risk of introducing new infection into the country.

A retrospective study was carried out to investigate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts among diarrhoeic children (n = 650), aged between 0 and 15 years, living in Maiduguri metropolis (n = 220), Bama local government area (n = 278) and Gwoza local government area (n = 152). Stool samples were concentrated using the ethyl acetate sedimentation method. Data of stool samples with Cryptosporidium oocysts from patients within the specified age groups were collected and analysed. The overall prevalence was 42.9%. The prevalence was higher in Maiduguri metropolis 45.0%, which is an urban area as compared to Gwoza and Bama combined together 41.8% which are rural areas but not statistically significant at 95% confidence level (P > 0.05; OR = 1.14; CI = 0.82, 1.58). According to age, the prevalence in age group A (0-10 years) was higher (46.8%) as compared to age group B (11 < 15 years), which was 20.8%, and this was statistically significant at 95% confidence level (P < 0.05; OR = 3.34; CI = 1.98, 5.61). According to gender, males showed a higher prevalence (52.5%) compared with females (47.5%), but this was not statistically significant at 95% confidence level (P > 0.05; OR = 1.13; CI = 0.82, 1.53). Seasonal prevalence showed that hot dry months of March and April were higher compared with other months. Our findings indicate the presence of the pathogen in children in Borno State, Nigeria, with higher odds of the infection in younger children, and dry months may be more associated with the infection. Control and preventive measures should be taken to protect younger children from the infection.

A study was conducted to elucidate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in birds in Zaria, Nigeria. A total of 890 faecal samples comprising 132, 305 and 453 from wild, local and exotic birds respectively from different parts of Zaria were examined using the formol-ether concentration technique with safranin–methylene blue stain and auramine phenol stain using light microscopy and fluorescent microscopy respectively. The total prevalence rate was 7.4%. However, Samaru had the highest prevalence rate of 20.6% and Tudun Wada the lowest rate of 2.8%. The difference in the prevalence rates between the different localities of Zaria was found to be statistically significant (P<0.001). Among the different birds sampled, local birds had the highest prevalence rate of 9.5% followed by exotic birds 6.6% and the wild ones with 5.3%. The difference was not statistically significant (P>0.05). In Tudun Wada, where the different sexes were noted, there was no significant statistical difference (P>0.05) in the prevalence rate between male and female birds and none between the different species of wild birds sampled (P>0.05). This study confirms the presence of avian Cryptosporidium in Zaria, Nigeria and indicates that whereas location may influence infection, breed, sex and species of birds may not be significant factors in the epidemiology of the infection.

Helminthosis in livestock has been a problem from time immemorial. Local farmers have ancient methods of controlling helminth parasites which had limited applications and success. Modern methods of controlling helminths are more effective if properly and strategically administered in such a way as to ensure adequate control of helminths and at the least possible cost to the farmer. Many factors militate against the control of Helminthosis in developing countries. Some of these factors are the literacy level of farmers, government funding and problems associated with experts in the field who are supposed to be involved in the control of Helminthosis. In this review some solution is proffered against these factors so as to ensure maximum helminth control and greater productivity of livestock.

Aim: A study was carried out to elucidate the seroprevalence of brucellosis in small and large ruminants in Melaka state of Malaysia and estimate the economic impact of zoonotic brucellosis in Malaysia using available data. Materials and Methods: Data was collected during culling exercises by the Department of Veterinary Services of Malaysia as a result of surveillance using CFT as a confirmatory test for brucellosis. Results: The average compensation in 4 years per district of Melaka state was RM12248.875(USD 3874.75) and the total compensation paid in 4 years was RM146,986.50(USD45,865.24) with year 2009 having the highest compensation amount of RM58,914.40(USD18,383.48). The estimated total economic losses due to brucellosis stands at about RM200,607,946.80 (USD 62,926,060.84) in a year for the whole of Malaysia. The odds of brucellosis in large ruminants (cattle/buffaloes) was significantly 1.6 times more compared to small ruminants (goats/sheep) in Melaka (P<0.0001; C.I. 1.41, 1.81) during the 4 year period. Average 4 year total seroprevalence for brucellosis in Melaka was significantly higher in 2010 than previous years with a rate of 7.78 % (P<0.05; Phi=0.025). Mass importation of livestock may be contributing in complicating the brucellosis situation. Conclusion: Considering the economic importance of brucellosis and its epidemiological importance to public health more needs to be done to ensure successful eradication of the zoonotic disease in Malaysia.