Artificial light at night (ALAN) is increasing exponentially worldwide, accelerated by the transition to new efficient lighting technologies. However, ALAN and resulting light pollution can cause unintended physiological consequences. In vertebrates, production of melatonin—the “hormone of darkness” and a key player in circadian regulation—can be suppressed by ALAN. In this paper, we provide an overview of research on melatonin and ALAN in vertebrates. We discuss how ALAN disrupts natural photic environments, its effect on melatonin and circadian rhythms, and different photoreceptor systems across vertebrate taxa. We then present the results of a systematic review in which we identified studies on melatonin under typical light-polluted conditions in fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans. Melatonin is suppressed by extremely low light intensities in many vertebrates, ranging from 0.01–0.03 lx for fishes and rodents to 6 lx for sensitive humans. Even lower, wavelength-dependent intensities are implied by some studies and require rigorous testing in ecological contexts. In many studies, melatonin suppression occurs at the minimum light levels tested, and, in better-studied groups, melatonin suppression is reported to occur at lower light levels. We identify major research gaps and conclude that, for most groups, crucial information is lacking. No studies were identified for amphibians and reptiles and long-term impacts of low-level ALAN exposure are unknown. Given the high sensitivity of vertebrate melatonin production to ALAN and the paucity of available information, it is crucial to research impacts of ALAN further in order to inform effective mitigation strategies for human health and the wellbeing and fitness of vertebrates in natural ecosystems.

A study was carried out in light booths to investigate user preference for different light spectra. Twenty-one LED spectra and three fluorescent lamps, all at three different correlated colour temperatures were used for the study. Sixty observers evaluated the lit scenes under different spectra for naturalness of selected objects, colourfulness of a Macbeth Colour Checker Chart, and the visual conditions of the lighting booths. The observers preferred the spectral power distributions (SPD) under which the chroma and colourfulness values of the object colours were higher. The CIE Colour Rendering Index was not a good indicator of the observers' preference for the LED SPDs. It seemed that light sources with a higher CQS Gamut Area Scale and CQS Colour Preference Scale values were preferred by the observers as far as LED spectra were concerned. However, the CQS Gamut Area Scale calculated with a new version of the software (version 9.2) and the Gamut Area Index were suitable as indicators of observers' preference for both the LEDs and the fluorescent lamp spectra. Because chroma and colourfulness values of object colours influence the observers' preference, they should be considered as important factors for the selection of a colour preference index for light sources.

To understand people's judgement of the naturalness of object colours and preference for the lit environment, lighting booth experiments were conducted. Seven different LED spectral power distributions, all at correlated colour temperatures of 2700 K, 4000 K and 6500 K, were simulated for high CIE colour rendering index (Ra), high colour quality scale (CQS) colour preference scale (Qp) keeping Ra ¼ 80, high feeling of contrast index (FCI) keeping Ra ¼ 80, high CQS relative gamut area scale (Qg) keeping Ra ¼ 80, low FCI keeping Ra ¼ 80, low Qp keeping Ra ¼ 80, and for a mimic of a fluorescent lamp (FL) in terms of the closest possible value of the Ra, FCI and Qp to the reference FL. Other metrics such as the gamut area index (GAI), memory CRI, and nCRI were also considered in the analysis. Sixty observers evaluated 24 lighting situations. This paper deals with a comparison evaluation, where LED lighting was compared to FL lighting. It was found that Ra does not explain the subjective naturalness of objects and the subjective preference of the lit environment for the different light sources. The results also indicate that people's judgement of naturalness and overall preference were explained better when a reference-based metric (such as Qp) and an area or volume-based metric (such as Qg or GAI) were both considered while maintaining the light source chromaticity difference (Duv) value within the limit AE 0.0054.

In order to determine user acceptance for light-emitting diode (LED) office lighting, a full-scale experiment was conducted in two mock-up office rooms with different light spectra at two different illuminances. Six LED spectra and two fluorescent lamp spectra were used for the study. There were four spectra (three LED spectra and one fluorescent lamp spectrum) at a correlated colour temperature (CCT) of 4000 K and four spectra (three LED spectra and one fluorescent lamp spectrum) at a CCT of 6500 K. Forty observers evaluated the lighting environments under different spectra and rated the lighting environments sitting at a working desk and at a meeting table. The observers preferred the task illuminance of 500 lux to 300 lux and the CCT of 4000 K to 6500 K. The observers preferred the spectral power distributions (SPDs) under which they found the lighting environment to look brighter and more spacious. The observers' preferences showed that spatial brightness was affected by illuminances and SPDs. The lighting with a SPD having higher values of a reference-based metric (CQS Colour Preference Scale) and an area-based metric (CQS Gamut Area Scale or Gamut Area Index) was preferred most at a CCT of 4000 K. It was also found that the lighting with the fluorescent lamp was least preferred among the other SPDs at the CCT of 4000 K. The observers preferred both the simple and complex SPDs over fluorescent lamps at 4000 K in the office environment. It would be a good option to develop simple LED SPDs while maintaining the criteria of good lighting for an office environment.

To investigate the performance of three different colour fidelity metrics, Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) colour-rendering index (CRI), colour quality scale (CQS) and CRI2012, lighting booth experiments were conducted. Three different light-emitting diode spectral power distribution, all at correlated colour temperatures of 2800 K, 4000 K and 6500 K, were simulated for Ra490, Ra % 80 and Ra560. It was found that CIE CRI, CQS and CRI2012 were highly correlated with visual colour difference. It was also found that colour quality scale provides better prediction for the light-emitting diode light source that highly increases object chroma. However, more colour fidelity experiments using lightemitting diode light sources that highly increase object chroma are required before recommending any final colour fidelity metric.

No abstract

The European Union has financed a 3-year research project to establish optimal spectral power distributions of LED light sources for use in offices, commerce and homes. This paper summarizes the general questions relevant to colour preference investigations and introduces the investigations performed in the three laboratories that participated in the research. Subsequent papers will deal with details of the investigations and provide recommendations for optimum spectra in different indoor applications.

No abstract