Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), a synthetic chemical used as a fuel additive, has been detected more frequently in the environment than previously. In this study, we examine the effects of MTBE (up to 100 mg/L) and its primary metabolite tertbutyl alcohol (TBA) (up to 1,400 mg/L) on the hatch rate and larval development of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus. Exposure to higher MTBE concentrations resulted in deformed eyes, mouthparts, and spinal cord and in increased larval mortality. Methyl tert-butyl ether exposure had no significant impact on egg viability, whereas TBA induced a decline of hatch rate. The MTBE can be regarded as a pollutant with toxicological effects on catfish larvae at concentrations above 50 mg/L. Although such concentrations greatly surpass present-day concentrations found in surface water (0.088 mg/L), concentrations up to 200 mg/L have been detected in groundwater.
Several pathways for potentially greenhouse gas neutral production of ammonia have been investigated compared to today's conventional ammonia production at chemical sites in Antwerp, Dormagen, and Geleen. These pathways include on‐site water electrolysis using grid electricity, off‐site production via water electrolysis using renewable electricity and supply of green hydrogen to the site, pyrolysis of natural gas and conventional ammonia production coupled with CO2‐capture on‐site and transport to a storage site. All pathways effectively eliminate scope 1 emissions present in conventional production but continue to emit scope 2 emissions from grid electricity consumption. Eventually, a coordinated industry‐wide and cross‐industry effort is needed to address the transformational changes and develop the common cross‐border infrastructures.
An overall model and scenario for increasing the share of renewable electricity consumption in the Belgium grid is proposed by simulating different PV and home battery capacities. The model is balancing the electricity generation of these renewable sources on an hourly basis with the historical consumption profiles of 2014, 2015, and 2016 to estimate how much renewable energy can be consumed directly. The model considers the problem of potential overloads on the low voltage grid, by limiting with curtailment the total PV injection on the low voltage grid to a level that can be currently sustained. A simple algorithm for grid injection limitation of this curtailment during daytime and nighttime is proposed, with and without the use of batteries. The share of renewable electricity consumption is calculated, investigating the impact of battery sizing and different levels for the power injection limit. Above a certain level, additional battery capacity has no effect. With increasing total PV deployment, the optimal power injection limit is reduced. A realistic and effective deployment scenario for renewable electricity from wind and PV is developed (up to 9 GW wind and 50 GWp PV for the Belgian case). It is possible to reach a share of consumed renewable electricity of almost 50% with a curtailment of 9% without the use of batteries. With higher PV deployment and a minimal amount of home battery capacity (1.5 kWh/kWp), a 70% share of consumed renewable energy is realized, with a curtailment of less than 20%.
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