The classical, disembodied approach to music cognition conceptualizes action and perception as separate, peripheral processes. In contrast, embodied accounts of music cognition emphasize the central role of the close coupling of action and perception. It is a commonly established fact that perception spurs action tendencies. We present a theoretical framework that captures the ways in which the human motor system and its actions can reciprocally influence the perception of music. The cornerstone of this framework is the common coding theory, postulating a representational overlap in the brain between the planning, the execution, and the perception of movement. The integration of action and perception in so-called internal models is explained as a result of associative learning processes. Characteristic of internal models is that they allow intended or perceived sensory states to be transferred into corresponding motor commands (inverse modeling), and vice versa, to predict the sensory outcomes of planned actions (forward modeling). Embodied accounts typically refer to inverse modeling to explain action effects on music perception (Leman, 2007). We extend this account by pinpointing forward modeling as an alternative mechanism by which action can modulate perception. We provide an extensive overview of recent empirical evidence in support of this idea. Additionally, we demonstrate that motor dysfunctions can cause perceptual disabilities, supporting the main idea of the paper that the human motor system plays a functional role in auditory perception. The finding that music perception is shaped by the human motor system and its actions suggests that the musical mind is highly embodied. However, we advocate for a more radical approach to embodied (music) cognition in the sense that it needs to be considered as a dynamical process, in which aspects of action, perception, introspection, and social interaction are of crucial importance.

In this paper, we present recent and on-going research in the field of embodied music cognition, with a focus on studies conducted at IPEM, the research laboratory in systematic musicology at Ghent University, Belgium. Attention is devoted to encoding/decoding principles underlying musical expressiveness, synchronization and entrainment, and action-based effects on music perception. The discussed empirical findings demonstrate that embodiment is only one component in an interconnected network of sensory, motor, affective, and cognitive systems involved in music perception. Currently, these findings drive embodiment theory towards a more dynamical approach in which the interaction between various internal processes and the external environment are of central importance. <br />

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Music performance requires precise control of limb movements in order to achieve temporal precision of performed tone onsets. Previous findings suggest that processes recruited for the temporal control of rhythmic body movements, such as those required in music performance, depend on the movement type (discrete vs. continuous) and the rate of the produced interonset intervals (sub-second vs. supra-second). Using a dual-task paradigm, the current study addressed these factors in the temporal control of cellists’ bowing movements. Cellists performed melodies in a synchronization-continuation timing task at a specified fast (intertone interval = 700 ms) or slow (intertone interval = 1,100 ms) tempo with either discrete (staccato) or continuous (legato) bowing movements. A secondary working memory task involved a concurrent digit-switch counting task. Analyses of the produced tone durations showed that the working memory load significantly impaired temporal regularity when the melodies were performed with discrete bowing movements at the slower tempo. In addition, discrete movements led to more errors on the working memory task. These findings suggest that continuous body movements provide temporal control information to performers under high cognitive load conditions.

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