Shoshonitic volcanism began in Fiji within 50 km of and 0.5 m.y. after formation of a transverse rift which broke the oceanic Vitiaz Arc across strike. Shoshonitic basalts erupted from 10 volcanoes along three lineaments for up to 225 km away from the rift along strike, from 5.5 to 3.0 Ma, during Fiji's “incipient rifting stage.” Three shoshonitic suites are distinguished based on differentiation‐normalized alkali contents, but K‐Rb‐Ba‐Sr, P‐rare earth element (REE), and Ti‐Zr‐Hf enrichments occur independent of each other. Enrichments are extremes of typical arc geochemical signatures, and are superimposed on high field strength elements and HREE concentrations and ratios like those of arc tholeiites. Medium‐ and high‐K calcalkaline volcanics are interspersed with shoshonites. Still farther from the transverse rift, coeval tholeiitic basalts erupted along the volcanic front. Decreasing large ion lithophile element enrichments from shoshonitic through calcalkaline to tholeiitic are attributed to increased percent fusion away from the transverse rift. All three suites are basalt‐dominated despite thickened crust, due to regional tension associated with fragmentation of the oceanic arc.
The character of alkalic volcanism in Fiji changed at about 3 Ma when the mode of formation of the adjacent Lau back arc basin shifted from rifting to active spreading, leaving Fiji as a remnant arc. The geochemical change occurred throughout Fiji within 500,000 years of the age of the oldest magnetic anomaly in the Lau Basin. The alkalic volcanism changed from shoshonitic during the rifting stage to ocean island basaltic (OIB) during the spreading stage. The Fijian OIBs have Nb/La ratios >1.0 and are divided into two types on the basis of the enrichment levels and ratios of incompatible elements. The less enriched type generally is older and has Dupal isotopic traits. The Fijian OIBs may reflect the introduction of sub‐Pacific mantle from Samoa beneath Fiji and the northern Lau and North Fiji basins since breakup of the arc.
There is considerable debate at present, particularly in the Member States of the European Union, concerning the necessity and appropriateness of imposing custodial sentences upon individuals who have engaged in cartel activity. The vast majority of those contributing to this debate have focused on the punishment theory of (economic) deterrence. Little room is devoted to the punishment theory of retribution or to consideration of the 'moral wrongfulness' of cartel activity. This article posits that the issue of 'moral wrongfulness' is a central issue in the debate on cartel criminalization, irrespective of whether it is deterrence theory or retribution theory that informs the debate. By employing a norms-based approach, this article then examines the extent to which cartel activity can indeed be interpreted as conduct that is 'morally wrong' due to its violation of the moral norms against stealing, deception and/or cheating. By doing so, this article not only challenges traditional views of the nature of cartel activity but also provides scholars, legislatures and policymakers with specific analyses which are crucial to a decision whether to justify (or indeed to oppose) the introduction and maintenance of criminal cartel sanctions.
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