IntroductionCoronaviruses belonging to the family Coronaviridae from the members of the order Nidovirales are spherical, enveloped, and single-stranded positive RNA viruses within the diameter range of 60-220 nm, which have rodshaped glycoprotein extensions in their outer surfaces and carry a genome size of 26-32 kb (King et al., 2011;Shereen et al., 2020). Among the coronaviruses, which are classified into four subgroups: alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ) (Kin et al., 2015), the strains that currently infect humans are seven; HCoV229E, HCoV-OC43, SARS-CoV, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-HKU1, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus) (Nomura et al., 2004).Following the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV) that occurred in China in 2002, MERS-CoV caused endemic in the Middle East countries in 2013 (Brian and Baric, 2005), while SARS-CoV-2 created pandemics in 2020 1 . The SARS-1 WHO has declared COVID-19 as a pandemic. [online] Website: https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020 [accessed date 25.05.2020]CoV-2, which caused the COVID-19 pandemic, belongs to the group of betacoronavirus and its clinical manifestations are evaluated in three different stages: i) mild; weakness, fever, dry cough, fatigue, and upper respiratory tract infections, ii) moderate; shortness of breath, severe cough, diarrhea, iii) severe; severe pneumonia, acute lung injury (ALI), and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis and septic shock (Cascella et al., 2020). Currently, there is no specific antiviral therapy developed against SARS-CoV-2.Based on previous experiences in SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV outbreaks, some treatment strategies have been developed (Cascella et al., 2020;Mehta et al., 2020;. These strategies include antiviral treatments or combinations of these that have been known to be safe for humans and used in previous viral outbreaks,
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is today's most serious epidemic disease threatening the human race. The initial therapeutic approach of SARS-CoV-2 disease is based upon the binding the receptor-binding site of the spike protein to the host cell's ACE-2 receptor on the plasma membrane. In this study, it is aimed to develop a biocompatible and biodegradable polymeric drug delivery system that is targeted to the relevant receptor binding site and provides controlled drug release. Oseltamivir phosphate (OP) is an orally administered antiviral prodrug for primary therapy of the disease in biochemically activated carboxylate form (oseltamivir carboxylate OC). In the presented study, model drug OP loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) targeted with spike-binding peptide 1 (SBP1) of SARS-CoV-2 were designed to be used as an efficient and prolonged released antiviral drug delivery system. RY, EE, and DL values of the OP-loaded NPs produced by the solvent evaporation method were calculated to be 59.3%, 61.4%, and 26.9%, respectively. The particle size of OP-loaded NPs and OP-loaded NPs targeted with SBP1 peptide were 162.0±11.0 and 226.9±21.4 nm, respectively. While the zeta potential of the produced OP-loaded NPs was achieved negatively −23.9±1.21 mV), the result of the modification with SBP1 peptide this value approached zero as −4.59±0.728 mV. Morphological features of the OP-loaded NPs were evaluated using FEG-SEM. The further characterization and surface modification of the NPs were analyzed by FT-IR. In-vitro release studies of NPs showed that sustained release of OP occurred for two months that fitting the Higuchi kinetic model. By evaluating these outputs, it was reported that surface modification of OP-loaded NPs was significantly effective on characteristics such as size, zeta potential values, surface functionality, and release behavior. The therapeutic model drug-loaded polymeric formulation targeted with a specific peptide may serve as an alternative to more effective and controlled release pharmaceuticals in the treatment of COVID-19 upon an extensive investigation.
Buyuk et al.: Amiodarone-loaded Chitosan NanoparticlesThis work is based on a natural polymer chitosan used in a nanoparticulate drug delivery system for the controlled release of amiodarone along with β-cyclodextrin. Amiodarone-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared using the ionic gelation method aided by sonication. Amiodarone loading on chitosan nanoparticles was done under optimum conditions. For particle characterization; zeta-sizer, UV/Vis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, differential scanning calorimeter and scanning electron microscope techniques were used. In vitro drug release studies of amiodaroneloaded chitosan nanoparticles were performed using the dialysis diffusion technique. Drug loading and release values were determined using UV/Vis spectroscopy. Amiodarone encapsulated in nanoparticles was completely released at the end of 14 days. About 38 % was released at the end of day 1, 44% released at the end of day 3, 50 % released at the end of day 5 followed slow release. Amiodarone-loaded chitosan nanoparticles could serve as a model for controlled delivery of many antiarrhythmic drugs.
The synthesis and applications of the peptides are gaining increasing popularity as a result of the developments in biotechnology and bioengineering areas and for a number of research purposes including cancer diagnosis and treatment, antibiotic drug development, epitope mapping, production of antibodies, and vaccine design. The use of synthetic peptides approved by the health authorities for vaccine, for cancer, and in drug delivery systems is increasing with these developments. The aim of this book chapter is to review the recent developments in the use of peptides in the diagnosis of drug and vaccine systems and to present them to the reader with commercially available illustrations.
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